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Agriculture / Commerce

Can I use cardboard and newspaper as mulch on my organic farm?

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Sat, 02/09/2013 - 5:53am

Answer: Materials that are used to produce and handle organic crops under the USDA's National Organic Program (NOP) must be selected for compliance and used in the context of organic principles for farming and handling practices. For more information, see the ATTRA publication Organic Materials Compliance at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=157. Among other information, this publication discusses three basic steps to ensure that materials use is compliant with organic standards and certification.

Regarding the use of newspaper and cardboard, both can be useful materials used in organic crop production for suppressing weeds, retaining moisture and adding organic matter to your soil. NOP regulations allow the use of newspaper or other recycled paper as an "allowed synthetic" with the provision that it be "without glossy or colored inks" (refer to NOP regulations 205.2, 205.601(b)(2), and 205.601(c)). It does take some work to separate out the newspapers that are neither glossy nor use colored inks. Also, there are fruit, vegetable, and meat cartons that are water- or grease-resistant and therefore coated with other types of materials, such as waxes, or impregnated with fungicides. These would also be prohibited for use in organic production.

ATTRA has not found any research studies to establish the impact of black ink used in the printing on newspaper, or whether the inks and glues used in cardboard are completely safe. However, there is abundant anecdotal and experiential evidence that suggests the use of brown cardboard as mulch is very effective as a weed barrier and that it biodegrades and does not appear to pose any substantial threat to the health of the soil and soil organisms. Many organic gardeners and farmers and ecological landscapers use cardboard often and say that it makes great sheet mulch.

A few years ago, ATTRA did research on the different substances that go into making cardboard, as well as the glues, inks, and coatings that may be used. Based on the information available then, the basic components of corrugated cardboard seemed to be relatively benign. Brown corrugated cardboard appears to be the least processed paper product. It therefore would have the lowest number and smallest quantity of chemical substances, compared to white, glossy, highly printed, waxed or otherwise coated cardboard, paperboard, and papers.

If you want to remove some of the variable of other unknown substances used in their production, avoid white cardboard (these may require the use of bleach), waxed boxes, paperboard (such as cereal boxes), and any material with colored ink (may contain heavy metals of other substances) or glossy coatings. There is an abundant supply of relatively plain (minimally printed), brown corrugated cardboard that can be obtained for free in most areas of the United States. Using this, many people can fulfill their mulching needs without the use of riskier materials.

Original post blogged on b2evolution.

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Managing Disease in the Organic Herd

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:37pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Introduction

This article describes some of the common diseases that may be found within organic dairy herds. As addressed in "Organic Dairy Herd Health: General Concepts," the prevention of disease through best management practices is critical on organic dairy farms. When disease does occur, early diagnosis and intervention is essential. To be most effective, alternative treatments need to be introduced earlier and more intensively than conventional treatments.

Adult Digestive Disorders Hardware Disease

Hardware disease (traumatic reticuloperitonitis) results from a cow swallowing a foreign object (usually metal) that lodges in the reticulum. Rumen contractions may eventually cause this object to punch a hole in the reticulum, causing inflammation and infection.

Signs of hardware disease vary in severity with the level of inflammation and infection. Cows may have objects that pose no threat residing in their stomachs for years and are only discovered at slaughter. Cows with perforations may walk with an arched back and be reluctant to eat. Other symptoms include slowed or absent rumen contractions, fever, or a positive “withers pinch test.” Pinch the backbone of the cow at the withers; cows with hardware disease will usually grunt.

If the object has penetrated and caused infection around the heart, you may hear abnormal heart sounds (like a washing machine) when you listen with a stethoscope. You may also be able to see a pulse in the jugular veins.

If severe signs are present (fever and pain), antibiotics and possibly the surgical removal of the foreign object is necessary. If antibiotics are used, the animal must be removed from organic production. This disease can be prevented (and mild cases treated) by administering magnets to cattle and ensuring that cows do not have access to foreign materials in the feed bunks or pasture.

Winter Dysentery

This digestive disorder is characterized by an acute onset of heavy, watery diarrhea caused by a coronavirus. It frequently occurs during winter housing (November through March) and likely spreads because of close contact. Once the disease starts, it usually affects all the adult animals in a herd. Although this disease is rarely fatal, it may cause a drop in milk production.

Treatment of winter dysentery is supportive: access to plenty of water so animals do not become dehydrated. Most animals will continue to eat and drink throughout the course of the disease. After a bout of winter dysentery, the herd may be immune for a few years.

Bloat

Bloat is caused by an accumulation of gas in the cow’s rumen. It usually falls within one of two categories: frothy or gassy. In mild cases, the cow belches and releases gas, but if abnormal fermentation occurs, gas may fill the rumen. The enlarged rumen puts pressure on blood vessels and restricts breathing; if the condition is not treated, death will occur.

Bloat occurs most commonly on young, lush legume pastures (particularly clovers). Moisture on the pasture (rain or dew) increases the occurrence of bloat, particularly in springtime or early summer because of the rapid fermentation of these highly digestible, early growth forages producing excess gas in the rumen. When this happens, soluble proteins are rapidly released and attacked by slime-producing bacteria. The slime forms a stable protein foam and fermentation gases buildup under this layer and the cow cannot expel them.

Bloat Prevention

• Allow only gradual access to legume pasture.
• Feed dry hay in barn before turning out onto pasture.
• Avoid turning cattle out on wet or dewy legume pasture. Allow sunlight to dry it.

Treatment of bloat

• Poloxalene is allowed for the emergency treatment of bloat but is not allowed as a preventive.
• For mild bloat, remove cow from pasture and feed dry hay.
• Have the cow stand uphill so gas can more easily escape the rumen.
• Place a stick in cow’s mouth and tie it behind the ears to encourage salivation.
• For severe cases, pass a stomach tube.
• For life threatening emergencies, punch a hole in rumen with a trocar (have your veterinarian provide you with proper training and tools).

Alternative Therapies for Bloat and Indigestion

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Indigestion: Aloe vera juice.
  • Probiotics.
  • Garlic.
  • Bloat: vegetable oil.
Adult Respiratory Disease

Bovine respiratory disease can be a major economic drain on organic farms, causing loss of production, increased labor costs, premature culling, and death. Upper respiratory disease (URD) affects the nostrils, throat, and windpipe; pneumonia (or lower respiratory tract disease) affects the bronchial tree and lungs.

A variety of causes (see Table 1) is responsible and is often triggered by stressful environmental factors. Stressors include humidity, dust, dehydration, irritating gases from manure build-up, and nutritional deficiencies. Abrupt weather changes, cattle transport, and poorly ventilated barns may also lead to respiratory disease outbreaks.

The signs of respiratory disease indicate whether the upper or lower respiratory tract is affected and the severity of the disease. URD can be characterized by discharge from the nose and eyes, coughing, and loud sounds while breathing. Signs of pneumonia include fever, depression, lack of appetite, increased breathing rate, coughing, and death.

Best Management Practices
  • Improve ventilation: Cows out on pasture are at a lower risk for respiratory disease than cows in a poorly ventilated barn. Fans improve airflow inside barns and you can retrofit many older barns with tunnel ventilation. In tunnel ventilation systems, fresh air is drawn through openings in one endwall by exhaust fans mounted in the opposite endwall.
  • Vaccination: If respiratory disease is a problem on the farm, or if new cattle are introduced to the farm, consider vaccinating both the home herd and new cattle. Vaccinations should include: IBR, PI3, BVD (Types I and II), BRSV, Pasteurella, and Haemophilus somnus. Early in a herd outbreak, vaccination or boostering with an intranasal vaccine may be helpful.
  • Feed quality: Dust from poor-quality hay can increase the risk of respiratory disease in a number of ways. Dust (possibly including mold spores) can act as a physical irritant on the respiratory system and may trigger allergic reactions and noninfectious pneumonia (interstitial pneumonia).
Treatment Practices
  • Passive antibodies: Although not effective for viral pneumonia, these are effective for Pasteurella pneumonia.
  • Vitamin B and C injections: Both of these vitamins are good anti-oxidants. You can administer both under the skin or in the vein.
  • Anti-inflammatories (aspirin or flunixin): Used to reduce fever and prevent damage to lungs.
  • Antibiotics: In cases where the calf does not respond to the above treatments, you must give antibiotics to prevent suffering. You must permanently remove animals treated with antibiotics from organic production.
Alternative Therapies for Adult Respiratory Disease

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Herbal antibiotic tinctures.
  • Garlic.
  • Homeopathy determined by cow's presentation and symptoms.
  • Essential oils (eucalyptus).
Basic Cattle Immunology

A good organic system and a holistic health system will naturally enhance the cow's immune system. A fundamental understanding of bovine immunity will help you troubleshoot problems when disease arises and will help you make educated management decisions to enhance immunity on your farm.

Components of the Immune System that Offer a Layer of Immunity
  • Skin and mucous membranes: The strength and health of the epithelium (skin of the body) is the first line of defense against disease by providing a physical barrier. Mucous membranes (nasal passages, mouth, vulva, etc.) contain skin specific antibodies (immunoglobulin A) in secretions on their surface that are first alert immunity for diseases entering via that route.
  • White blood cells: These cells are produced in the bone marrow, spleen, liver, and lymph nodes and are constantly circulating in the bloodstream, patrolling for disease agents. When they encounter disease, they engulf the agent and send out warning chemicals (to recruit other white blood cells from other parts of the body.
  • Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells that produce antibodies to disease agents.
  • Passive immunity: Passive immunity is achieved when is antibodies are passed from dam to calf in the colostrum. Active immunity comes through antibodies created in response to a vaccination or an illness; it is generally much stronger than passive.
Strategic Vaccination Programs

The USDA National Organic Program (NOP) allows vaccination. It is strongly recommended for open herds (e.g., when animals are bought in or sold, animals are shown in fairs, or other animals are occasionally boarded on the farm). It is always cheaper and healthier for the animal and farm budget if the farm can prevent diseases.

How Vaccinations Work

Vaccinations stimulate the cow’s immune system against specific diseases that may be present or later introduced into the herd. You should discuss vaccination with your herd veterinarian. There is no one size fits all vaccine program appropriate for every dairy. Your farm’s disease history, purchase of new animals, management, housing, breeding, cost versus benefits, and efficacy are all important considerations when evaluating whether a vaccination will benefit your farm.

No vaccination program can protect all the animals. The goal is to build a level of herd immunity so disease cannot spread to susceptible animals. If a disease is introduced into an unvaccinated herd, 100% of the animals are susceptible. Disease may spread from the initially sick animal throughout the herd. Some may get sick and die; others will survive the infection and develop an immunity that may last weeks or a lifetime. When a disease infects vaccinated herds, the herd already has a level of immunity that slows or even halts its spread. It may therefore never reach the susceptible animals. Figure 1 illustrates an unvaccinated herd. All cows in this herd are susceptible. If a disease is brought into the herd, it can spread rapidly from cow to cow since so many animals are at risk. On the other hand, Figure 2 illustrates a vaccinated herd where 17 of the 19 animals in the herd are immune, leaving only two susceptible animals. If a disease enters this herd, it will likely encounter an immune animal and be stopped in its tracks before reaching a susceptible one.

Figure 1. Unvaccinated herd.

Figure 2. Vaccinated herd.

Types of Vaccines

There are four kinds of vaccines -- each have different benefits and drawbacks and are described in Table 1.

Table 1. Vaccine types, needed action, benefits, and cautions. Type of Vaccine Action Benefits Cautions Modified Live (MLV) Multiplies in animal and stimulates white blood cells to produce antibodies. Create a very strong immune response and usually just one vaccination is necessary. Often not given to pregnant animals for fear of causing abortion or birth defects (IBR, BVD) Killed Inactivated virus or bacterium, so it does not reproduce in body. Safe for pregnant animal. Immunity is not as strong or long-lasting; requires frequent boosters; delayed development of immunity. Autogenous Bacterial or viral vaccine produced from organism or tissue of sick animal. Used for farm-specific diseases where commercial vaccines are not available or effective. May contain bacterial toxins, so may create allergic reaction. Nosodes Homeopathic remedy produced from diseased tissue or culture. Used as preventive to stimulate natural immunity. Not effective in outbreaks;
not legally recognized. Administering Vaccines

Stress, other diseases, parasites, and poor nutrition can affect the body's ability to produce a good immune response to a vaccine and make them more susceptible to vaccine reactions. Failure to give booster vaccinations at the recommended intervals leaves animals unprotected. Poor handling of the vaccine, such as exposing it to temperature extremes, may reduce the quality and fail to stimulate a response.

Vaccinating young calves is tricky. Antibodies absorbed from colostrum often interfere with the vaccines during the first few months of life. Also, newborn calves’ immune systems are usually not mature enough to respond to vaccination.

Some people are concerned with the risks of vaccination. Some vaccines, particularly killed ones, are more likely to stimulate an allergic reaction. If a cow receives too many vaccines at one time, her immune system may be overwhelmed responding to all the vaccines and may not respond completely to one or more of them, leaving her susceptible. You should also take care using MLV vaccines. Since they are modified live viruses, animals may shed the virus for a brief time after vaccination. This may cause complications in immuno-suppressed or young animals if they are in contact with the MLV vaccinated animals. Table 2 outlines common vaccines administered on organic dairy farms.

Table 2. Diseases to consider when designing a strategic vaccination program. Disease Conditions Vaccination Schedule Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) Respiratory disease, abortion 4–6 months of age; prebreeding and yearly booster Parainfluenza-3 (PI3) Respiratory disease, abortion Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) Diarrhea, abortion, fever, respiratory disease Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV) Respiratory disease Bovine Respiratory Complex (Pasteurella, Mannheimia, Haemophilus) Respiratory disease, fever Leptospirosis Fever, abortion, blood in urine Brucellosis Abortion, reproductive diseases, repeat breeding Calfhood vaccination at 4–8 months (once) Clostridium Sudden death Start at 2–6 months and booster in 2 weeks, yearly booster Scours (E.coli, Corona and Rotaviruses) Calf diarrhea Give at 6–7 months of pregnancy Pinkeye Watery eyes, clouding, swelling Two doses at least 30 days prior to pinkeye season Coliform Mastitis Acute mastitis, fever, depression, watery milk, death Three doses: at dry off, two weeks later, and after freshening for herds with coliform mastitis problems Biosecurity

A biosecurity program is a set of management practices used to minimize the introduction to disease, spread of disease within the herd, and transport of disease off the farm. Using biosecure best management practices reduces clinical disease, improves production, and increases profitability. As always, it is easier to prevent disease than treat it.

Biosecurity Best Management Practices to Reduce Off-Farm Risks

Off-farm risks are diseases or problems that may occur from introducing animals to the farm, moving animals, or transferring biological hazards on or in objects (truck tires, boots, and water sources). The questions below address the chances that a new disease will be introduced on the farm.

When purchasing animals, you buy more than just the cow. Healthy animals may be carriers of contagious mastitis, Johne's disease, BVD, and other risks. Keeping a closed herd (where no new animals are introduced) is ideal. However, farms interested in expanding their herd may feel the need to bring in outside animals. There are steps you can take to minimize risks. Think about the following.

  • What is the origin of cattle you are buying? Buying from a private, closed herd with rigorous testing is preferable to buying from an auction or cattle dealer where animals from many different farms are mixed.
  • Ask for the current herd health records. Has the farm screened for contagious disease within the past year?
  • Can you quarantine animals when they arrive on your farm for 3 to 4 weeks so that testing, vaccination, or treatment may be accomplished?
  • Are the cattle already on the farm vaccinated? (See previous section on strategic vaccination).

There are other off-farm risks that can introduce diseases to the farm. For the following situations in open herds, taking precautionary biosecure measures lessen the risk of disease.

  • Boarding and exhibiting: Boarding animals off the farm (e.g., sending heifers to a custom raiser) or exhibiting animals in fairs and shows. Protect by vaccination and quarantine for 3 to 4 weeks when they return home.
  • Wildlife: Non-cattle wildlife (particularly birds and rodents) can introduce Salmonella, Cryptosporidium, Leptospirosis, rabies, and other diseases. Biodiversity is important for organic farms, but it is important to create control programs for pests and to keep feed in areas or containers where rodents and birds have minimal access.
  • Manure from noncertifed herds: Use of manure from noncertified herds is allowed in organic production, but it carries some risks. Before spreading manure from the neighboring dairy on your fields, ask about the Johne’s status of the herd. High temperature composting of off-farm manure will reduce the level of infectious organisms (E. coli, Listeria, Salmonella, and Johne's bacteria) in the manure.
  • Vehicles and people: Restrict access of vehicles that travel farm to farm (e.g., feed trucks) to only necessary parts of the farm and keep them out of contact with animal areas. Ask everyone to sanitize their boots on entry to your farm and wear clean coveralls. It would be good to have a boot wash station with disinfectant readily available. Request that your hoof trimmer disinfect the table and tools before it comes onto your farm.
Biosecurity Best Management Practices to Reduce Within-Farm Risks

Disease can also spread among susceptible groups on the farm. The most common scenario is milking the cows and then traveling down to the calf barn to feed the calves, wearing the same coverall and boots. Ideally, cattle should be worked in order of increasing age, with adjustments made for sick animals. Calves are the most immunologically immature animals on the farm, so make contact with this group before any others on the farm. Sick calves should be separated from healthy calves and fed and treated after the healthy group. Maternity and sick pens should be separate and sick cows should be the last group worked on the farm. Washing boots, hands, and changing coveralls between groups creates optimal biosecurity.

Best Management Practices for Specific Diseases Johne's Disease

Johne's disease, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium paratuberculosis subspecies avium, is a chronic wasting disease of cattle and other ruminants, characterized by weight loss and diarrhea. Infected cattle shed the bacteria in manure and may classify as light, moderate high, or super shedders depending on the number of bacteria per gram of manure. It may only take a thimbleful of contaminated manure from a heavy shedder to infect a calf.

Young calves up to a year old are most susceptible to oral infection with Johne's bacteria. Symptoms, however, rarely appear until years after the initial infection occurs. Johne's disease can also be spread in the uterus and in milk by heavily infected mothers, although this route of transmission is less common.

Best management practices are designed to prevent susceptible calves from coming in contact with adult manure. Most states have a Johne's Disease Control Program that assists farmers in designing plans to identify Johne’s disease on the farm and to work to reduce it over time. Your state veterinarian can provide additional information.

The following are the basic steps of all Johne's disease control programs.

  1. Establish a Johne's testing and removal program for your farm.
    • This plan varies farm to farm and should be developed with your veterinarian and the state Johne’s disease coordinator.
    • Small herds should fecal culture all cattle older than two years of age; larger herds may test a subset of cattle that have been statistically selected.
    • Environmental screening (culture of pooled feces from concentrated cattle areas) can be performed to assess if Johne’s is present on a farm.
    • Cull heavily infected animals.
  2. Prevent fecal to oral spread of Johne's bacteria.
    • Use separate tools to scrape manure. Do not use manure contaminated tools or equipment to handle feed.
    • Prevent manure contamination of the drinking water.
    • Prevent run-off from adult areas to calf areas.
    • Dedicate pastures for youngstock use only. Avoid leader-follower grazing schemes.
    • Do not walk in the feed.
  3. Feed and care for calves before working with adult cattle.
    • Manage calves to break the cycle of transmission.
    • Know the Johne's status of the dam before calving.
    • Calve cows in separate pens or expansive pasture. Pens should be dedicated to calvings and cleaned between uses.
    • In herds with Johne's disease, calves should be removed from birth as soon as possible.
    • Feed calves colostrum and milk from test-negative cows only.

You can access additional information on Johne's disease at: www.johnes.org and www.nyschap.vet.cornell.edu.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD)

Bovine viral diarrhea is a problem in dairy and beef cattle and other ruminants. As with Johne's disease, infected cattle may not show any outward symptoms. Although BVD was initially associated with diarrhea, we now know that the virus can cause a range of symptoms. BVD affects the cow's immune system making it more likely to contract other respiratory and intestinal diseases. Other symptoms include ulcers in the mouth and nose. If calves are infected later in gestation they may be born with birth defects.

Cattle may have acute infections or be persistently infected. Acute animals may have a fever, depression, diarrhea, or respiratory disease. BVD may cause abortions during the first trimester. Acutely infected cattle shed the virus for about two weeks and either recover completely or die. Persistently infected (PI) animals contract the disease in utero. PI animals are infected for life, constantly shedding the virus. The offspring of PI cows are also persistently infected. These infected animals may not exhibit any symptoms at all or they may be sickly and die in the first year of life. Bulls can also be infected and shed BVD in semen.

Best Management Practices for BVD
  • Screen the herd for BVD in bulk milk. Your veterinarian can submit bulk milk samples to your state diagnostic laboratory for screening. Although this is an accurate test, it does not check the dry cows and calves.
  • Test and remove persistently infected animals. Nasal swabs, blood (serum) samples, and ear notches can identify infected animals.
  • Vaccinate to prevent additional spread.
  • Screen bulls for BVD before they come to the farm or be sure your semen company uses BVD-free semen.
Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV)

Bovine leukemia is another contagious viral disease of cattle also known as bovine leukosis or lymphosarcoma. BLV is spread among cows by blood contact. Multiple use needles and rectal sleeves, dehorning equipment, and biting flies can all spread this disease. Dams can also spread it to calves in colostrum and milk. Many cattle in the US are infected with BLV, but only a small percentage (less than 5%) develop cancer of the lymph nodes (lymphosarcoma). Finding lymphosarcoma will result in the carcass being condemned at slaughter.

Best Management Practices for BLV
Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: External and Internal Pests and Parasites

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:36pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

External Parasites and Diseases of the Skin Fly Management

Flies are not only a nuisance, they can also impact farm profitability through reduced production and the spread of disease. Biting flies are capable of decreasing milk production by 15% to 30%. Because organic production prohibits synthetic insecticides, organic farmers must take a multi-faceted approach to insect control. Face flies, horn flies, and stable flies are the most common types found in the Northeast (see Table 1).

Table 1. Common flies in the Northeast. Common Name Location on Animal Problem Level Remarks Face Fly Face. More than 10 flies per face.
  • Problem when animals are on pasture.
  • Irritation to eyes.
  • Spread of pinkeye.
Horn Fly Back and abdomen. More than 50 flies per side.
  • Problem when animals are on pasture.
  • Rapid life cycle of 10 to 20 days.
  • Female will lay 400 to 500 eggs in her lifetime.
  • Eggs laid in fresh manure.
Stable Fly Legs. More than 10 flies per animal.
  • Problem in barns and on pasture.
  • Rapid life cycle of 14 to 24 days.
  • Female will lay 100 to 400 eggs in her lifetime.
  • Eggs laid in manure and dirt (around feeding areas, drainage areas).

Creating a carefully thought out fly management program and instituting it early in the fly season is essential to success. No single step will control flies; instead, it requires an integrated management plan. The best management practices for fly control are listed in order of priority.

  1. Start control early in the season. Since one female fly can lay 100 to 400 eggs every three weeks, waiting until a problem is noticed may be too late.
  2. Keep pastures and barns clean, dry, and free of manure. Since flies breed in decaying organic material and manure, removing breeding sites will reduce the population of flies. If used for bedding, spread out straw as soon as possible after its removal from stalls. Improve drainage in holding areas and exercise lots. Fence wet or muddy areas out of pastures. Move round bale feeder and scrape areas around feed bunks frequently.
  3. Use pheromone traps and sticky tape in barns to capture adult flies.
  4. Release parasitic wasps. These insects feed on fly larvae and can be released regularly throughout fly season.
  5. Use essential oils and botanicals. These are available from various organic supply companies and can be used as one final step in fly control on your farm. Remember to check with your certifier to be sure that the product is allowed.
  6. Use hydrated lime or diatomaceous earth. These may be used in dust bags to dry the hair coat of cows, making it less attractive to flies.
Ringworm, Lice, and Warts

Ringworm, lice, and warts are diseases of the skin of cattle and are usually contagious. They affect cow comfort and production and are more commonly seen during the winter months when cows spend more time inside (see Table 2).

Table 2. Common causes of common skin diseases and management considerations. Disease Cause Contributing Factor Signs Management and Treatment Ringworm Trichophyton verrucosum Immature or compromised immune systems. Circular, grayish crusts especially on eyes, muzzle, and back. Sunlight, fresh air; trace mineral and vitamin supplementation; local treatment with tincture of iodine or tea tree oil. Lice Sucking or biting of these ectoparasites Crowding, winter months. Decreased production, anemia. Reduce overcrowding; improve nutrition and access to self groomers; hydrated lime or sulfur dust bags; permitted botanical and alternative products. Warts Papillomavirus Immature immune systems. Warts on head, neck, and teats, injury to skin. Time; vaccination. Pinkeye

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK or pinkeye) is caused by the bacteria Moraxella bovis. Conditions that irritate the eye and surrounding structures (including flies, plant material and stubble, dust, and viruses) allow infection by the bacteria. Initial signs of the disease include tearing, redness, swelling, and sensitivity to light (squinting). As the disease advances, a cloudy area may appear on the surface of the eye that gradually spreads. The eye may bulge or eventually rupture. Conventional farms usually inject antibiotics into the conjunctiva of the eye. However, organic management does NOT allow this and must rely on good fly control and prevention of irritation to the eye.

Follow good grazing practices to prevent stubble from injuring eye tissues. Consider vaccinating before fly season. Make sure nutrition is adequate. For extremely irritated eyes, place an eye patch or have your veterinarian temporarily sew the third eyelid over the globe to speed healing and lessen the pain.

Alternative Therapy for Pinkeye

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Calendula eyewash sprayed in affected eye twice daily.
Internal Parasites of Cattle

Animals on pasture are at higher risk for infestation by internal parasites. In your organic systems plan (OSP), develop grazing management strategies to minimize potential infection and transfer among age groups on your farm.

Nematodes

The most common intestinal worms affecting cattle in the Northeast are the brown stomach worm (Ostertagia ostertagi), the barber pole worm (Haemonchus contortus), and Cooperia spp. Larvae overwinter in cattle in the Northeast and begin to mature and produce eggs in the springtime, shedding in cattle feces. Figure 1 illustrates the nematode lifecycle.

Figure 1. Nematode lifecycle. Credit: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY.

Worm infestation may be clinical (visible signs) or subclinical. Clinical infections are more common in young cattle and calves. They may have diarrhea, poor weight gain, potbellies, rough and discolored hair coats, or swelling under the jaw (bottle jaw). In subclinical infestations (most common in adult cattle), diarrhea rarely occurs but the worms negatively affect milk production and body condition. Many adult cattle develop some level of immunity to intestinal parasites.

Organic farmers manage nematodes through best management practices and alternative therapies. The National Organic Program (NOP) allows synthetic dewormers (only Ffenbendazole, Ivermectin, and Moxidectin) only on an emergency basis in organic dairy cattle not designated as organic slaughter stock. Routine dewormers cannot be used. Instead, the organic system plan (OSP) must include a management plan to reduce youngstock exposure to parasites. These management steps are included in the article, "Pasture Management on Organic Dairy Farms: Pasture Pitfalls."

Alternative Therapies for Nematodes

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Black walnut hulls and/or wormwood.
  • Garlic.
Coccidiosis

Bovine coccidiosis is caused by Eimeria spp., tiny, one-celled organisms. Most of the negative effects of coccidiosis occur in young animals (calves and heifers) and infestations are characterized by diarrhea (often with blood), weight loss, anemia, and dehydration. Death is usually due to dehydration or secondary bacterial infections.

Coccidia have a complex lifecycle. Oocysts (eggs) are shed in feces. These oocysts are quite hardy and can survive for months in moist areas, particularly where sunlight and ventilation is minimal. They are unaffected by common disinfectants. The oocysts change life stage in the environment and are then ingested by calves. Inside the calf intestine, the oocysts release sporozoites that burrow into the intestinal wall. Inside the intestinal wall, they undergo a few more life stages and eventually release more oocysts into the feces and into the environment. One ingested oocyst ultimately results in 20 million additional oocysts shed into the environment.

The severity of symptoms directly relates to the number of oocysts ingested; so, the more contaminated or less hygienic an area, the greater the risk of oocyst exposure. Overcrowding, stress, diet changes, or shipping can cause an outbreak. Follow the same best management practices used to prevent scours. The three currently NOP-approved synthetic dewormers are NOT effective for coccidiosis.

Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations Additional Resources

 

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 8001

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Udder Health and Milk Quality

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:34pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Introduction: Defining Milk Quality

Milk quality can mean many things to many people. Consumers expect that their milk will have a consistent appearance, pleasant taste, and last a week or more in their refrigerator. According to the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO), Grade A milk has a Somatic Cell Count (SCC) of less than 750,000 cells/ml and a standard plate count (SPC) of less than 100,000 colony-forming-units (cfu)/ml and is free of added water and harmful residues above a designated tolerance limit. These are the minimum standards. Organic processors are willing to pay for high quality so there is opportunity for dairy producers to increase their milk check substantially by focusing on udder health and limiting mastitis on their farms. Many processors are reluctant to receive milk that is consistently greater than 400,000 cells/ml.

Somatic Cell Counts (SCC)

In a healthy udder, somatic cells are epithelial cells from the lining of the mammary gland and some types of white blood cells. A healthy gland should have cell counts less than 100,000 cells/ml and typically, counts are much lower than that (less than 25,000 cells/ml).

When bacteria invade the gland, the few white blood cells normally present send out an alarm to the rest of the body and recruit thousands of additional white blood cells from the blood stream to come into the mammary gland to fight infection. Infected glands have SCCs greater than 250,000 cells/ml and often the counts reach into the millions. If all goes well, these white blood cells kill the invading bacteria and the SCC of the gland decrease to less than 100,000 cells/ml within 30 days. We can estimate the number of infected quarters in a herd and the impact on production from the bulk milk SCC (see Table 1).

Table 1. Estimating production lost and percent of infected quarters in a herd by bulk milk SCC. Bulk Tank SCC Percent infected quarters in herd Percent production loss 200,000 6 0 500,000 16 6 750,000 25 12 1,000,000 32 18 1,500,000 48 29 Source: Britt, J. 1987. Herd linear scores versus bulk tank sampling. Proceedings of National Mastitis Council Annual Meeting. Orlando, FL.

Regularly monitoring SCC at both the herd and individual animal levels provides you with valuable information to help manage milk quality and improve profitability. Monitoring will help you detect new infections so that appropriate therapies can be administered early in the course of the disease. Monitoring chronically infected cows will help you identify those for culling, early dry off, or candidates for potential nurse cows. You can also follow SCCs after administering therapies to determine whether the treatment was successful. There are many ways to monitor SCC on farms and they vary in terms of cost, ease of use, and reliability of information (see Table 2).

Table 2. Options for individual animal somatic cell count testing. Cell Counting Option Cost Accuracy Limitations Monthly DHIA testing $0.80 to $1.50 per cow per month Excellent • Only gives SCC for the cow for that single day
• SCC can fluctuate day to day Cow-side direct cell counting • $300 to 3,000 for initial unit
• $1.50 per cow per test Very good to adequate • More expensive devices have better accuracy California or Wisconsin Mastitis Test (CMT/WMT) • A few cents per test Fair • More accurate for very high cell counts
• Can be difficult to read for SCC< 1,000,000 cells/ml Electrical conductivity • Hand-held unit: $300–400
• In-line monitor: thousands Highly variable • Best used for early detection of clinical mastitis
• Reliability for chronic or subclinical mastitis is limited Bacteria Counts

Several factors affect bacteria counts in raw milk: cleanliness of the cow’s teats and udder, udder infections (mastitis), cleanliness of milking machines, and milk storage and cooling. Excessive bacteria counts impact shelf life, flavor, and increase the risk of foodborne diseases (e.g., Salmonella, Listeria) in the milk supply. Pasteurization effectively kills a majority of the bacteria in milk, but it does not sterilize milk. Thus, when milk has extremely high bacteria counts, a portion of bacteria can survive the pasteurization process and be present in the final product.

Mastitis-causing bacteria may increase bacteria counts in raw milk. These are usually bacteria in the streptococcus family (Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, and Streptococcus dysgalactiae) and infrequently, E. coli. The majority of bacteria issues in raw milk are related to poor cleaning or improper cooling of milk.

Dairy producers can ensure that their milk has low bacteria counts by adhering to the following practices.

  • Always milk clean, dry teats.
  • Keep milk from cows infected with mastitis out of the bulk tank.
  • Ensure that the equipment wash chemicals are appropriate for the farm’s water hardness and that correct amounts are used.
  • Check that rinse and wash water temperatures are within the recommended ranges.
  • Sanitize the equipment immediately before milking.
  • Cool milk to less than 45°F and preferably to 40°F.

The Standard Plate Count (SPC), also known as the Plate Loop Count (PLC), is the most common bacterial count done on raw milk and is the only bacteria count that has a legal limit in the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO). Other tests include the Lab Pasteurized Count (LPC), Preliminary Incubation Count (PIC), and Coliform Count (CC). Farmers use these tests to diagnose causes of high bacteria counts from the cows, poor cooling, or poor cleaning.

Diseases of the Teats and External Udder

Weather and housing conditions, bedding, and infectious disease may affect the outside surface of the udder and teats. These diseases can affect milking or harbor bacteria (e.g., Staph aureus), resulting in new mastitis cases.

Table 3. Common diseases of the teats and external udder. Disease Cause Contributing Factors Signs Treatment or Management Mammilitis Herpes virus Heifers, winter weather Blisters, scabs, "wooden teats" Chlorhexidine teat dips in winter, vaccination Warts Papilloma virus Contagious spread at milking Small, teat colored bump Surgical removal, vaccination,
chlorhexidine dips Udder rot Unknown Udder edema, mange mites, udder shape Skin infection between halves of udder or between leg and udder Scrub with antiseptic soap (iodine or chlorhexidine), dry the area, calendula salve, raw honey Mastitis

Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in response to injury. Usually, this injury occurs via infection by a microorganism, most commonly bacterial, but physical and chemical trauma can also cause mastitis. If contagious mastitis is present in a herd planning to transition to organic dairy production, the farmer should make all efforts to identify, treat, and/or cull the infected animals prior to transition. In established organic herds, contagious mastitis can be more of a headache, but it can be managed with continued effort and monitoring. Alternative therapy regimens usually yield disappointing results and are often impractical for large numbers of animals. More than 100 organisms are capable of causing mastitis in cows and most of these are bacteria. These bacteria may be considered contagious (living primarily in the cow's udder and spreading at milking time) or environmental (living in bedding, manure and mud and infecting cows anytime). See Table 4.

There are two classifications of the degree of mastitis inflammation: clinical and subclinical.

  • Clinical mastitis: Visible changes in milk or udder (redness, swelling, pain, clots and flakes). Most commonly caused by environmental bacteria.
  • Subclinical mastitis: No physical changes in udder or milk, but large increases in microscopic cells and bacteria. You can detect subclinical mastitis with one of the cell counting options mentioned previously or by culturing a milk sample. Contagious mastitis commonly causes subclinical mastitis. For every one case of clinical mastitis in a herd, there may be 15 to 40 cases of subclinical mastitis.
Table 4. Microorganisms most commonly responsible for bovine mastitis. Contagious Mastitis Organism Common Sources Transmission Symptoms and Impacts on Milk Quality Best Management Practices Streptococcus agalactiae
“Strep ag” • Infected udders • Cow to cow at milking time: on inflations and hands • Very high somatic cells counts
• Decreased milk production
• High bacteria counts 1. Identify infected cows through whole herd milk culture
2. Milk infected cows last
3. Cull high SCC cows (cull ALL Myco. cows)
4. Wear gloves to milk
5. Post dip
6. Control flies
7. Culture herd replacements Staphylococcus aureus
“Staph aureus” • Infected udders
• Skin • Similar to Strep ag
• Biting flies
• Cross-suckling by calves • Fluctuating somatic cell counts
• Occasionally, clinical mastitis
• Scarring of udder
• May cause gangren Mycoplasma species • Infected udders
• Cows and heifers with respiratory disease • Similar to Strep ag and Staph aureus
• Coughing and sneezing
• Calves may be infected by drinking infected milk • High SCC
• Decreased milk production in one or more quarters
• Swollen joints
• Coughing and pneumonia
• Calves may have head tilt or ear infectio Corynebacterium bovis (C. bovis) • Teat skin • Cow to cow at milking • Occasional clinical mastitis
• Minimal increase of SCC 1. Post dip with iodine-based teat dip
2. Apply teat dip with a cup Environmental Mastitis Environmental streptococci (Strep uberis & Strep dysgalactiae) • Bedding, manure, and soil • Between milkings from environment
• At dry off and during prefresh period • High SCC and sometimes high bacteria counts
• Clinical mastitis 1. Clean cows
2. Clean environment
3. Well-bedded stalls
4. Good premilking teat preparation
5. Well-maintained milking equipment
6. Clean dip cups regularly
7. Good fly control
8. Fence ponds and standing water in pastures
9. Rotate pastures to avoid mudholes from developing under trees
10. Store bedding properly to avoid contamination and moisture
11. Coliform vaccination for herds with E. coli and Klebsiella problems. Environmental staphylococci (Coagulase negative staph—CNS) • Bedding, manure, and soil • Between milkings from environment • Mild increase in SCC Escherichia coli
(E. coli) • Manure • Between milkings from environment
• More common in summer • Acute mastitis: watery milk, hot hard quarter, very sick cow, may cause death Klebsiella species • Manure, soil  • Between milkings from environment
• More common in summer  • Acute mastitis: watery milk, hot hard quarter, very sick cow, may cause death
• Cows that survive will usually have chronic quarters Pseudomonas species
  • Contaminated water or hoses • Between milkings
• At milking time from water
• From contaminated mastitis tubes • Severe, chronic mastitis Serratia species • Contaminated teat dip
• Contaminated water • Between milkings from environment
• At milking time from contaminated dip cups • Chronic mastitis Arcanobacterium pyogenes
“summer mastitis” • Soil, dry cow and heifer environments
• Biting flies • During dry period
• After teat injury • Thick, smelly discharge from swollen quarter Prototheca species
(algae mastitis) • Mud, silage juice, pasture, manure • Between milkings from environment • Chronic mastitis
• Cows can shed in their manure Mastitis Management

Management of mastitis in a herd should focus on preventing new infections rather than treating infections as they occur. Even in conventional herds where antibiotic treatment is allowed, identifying the risks for new infections and adopting best management to reduce those risks is the key to producing high-quality milk and increasing the profitability of the farm.

Mastitis Basic Management Strategies
  1. Good milking procedures.
    • Udder wash/predip: Before you attach the milking units, wash or predip teats and wipe clean with single-use towels.
    • Forestrip into cup or gutter: Stimulates milk letdown response and helps identify clinical mastitis early.
    • Nitrile or latex gloves: Gloved hands are more easily disinfected between cows or when contaminated with milk or manure.
    • Milking order: Milk cows with contagious mastitis last.
    • Overmilking/machine stripping: Machine stripping damages teat ends causing cracks that are more likely to be colonized by S. aureus.
    • Post-milking teat dipping: Apply immediately after milking to kill bacteria left on the teats by the inflations and to protect the teat end until it closes.
  2. Maintain milking equipment regularly.
    • Evaluate equipment biannually: A qualified individual should evaluate the mechanical milking system at least twice a year and perform dynamic testing while the system is operating.
    • Replace liners: Replace rubber milking liners every 800 cow milkings or every 60 days, whichever comes first. Rubber used longer than this deteriorates and will develop microscopic cracks and ridges that hold mastitis bacteria even through the wash cycle.
  3. Dry cow management.
    • Organic dairy production does not allow the use of dry cow antibiotics or external/internal teat sealants. However, the dry period is an important time for udder health improvement and the rejuvenation of milking tissue.
    • Reduce feed intake one week before dry off to decrease production.
    • Dip teat end with teat dip twice daily for a week after dry off.
    • Feed adequate amount of selenium and vitamin E in the dry period.
    • Keep dry cow housing and bedding clean and dry. Hygiene is essential!
  4. Mastitis management.
    • Figure 1 will guide treatment of mastitis through its decision tree. Healthy cows with good immune systems will often recover with no-to-minimal treatment. Cows with severe acute mastitis require measures to support their immune systems, allowing the opportunity for natural healing.

Figure 1. Mastitis treatment decision tree.

For specific mastitis treatments, dosages, and additional information, consult with your herd veterinarian or one of the resources listed at the end of this article. When administering medications, administer intramammary infusions with great care so as not to introduce new bacteria into the mammary gland with the medication. Medications should be sterile and packaged in single-use infusion tubes. Proper procures are to dip and wipe the teat, then clean the teat end with cotton moistened with rubbing alcohol, and lastly infuse the quarter. After infusion, dip the teat again.

Remember that all the milk house cleaners, sanitizers and teat dips must be listed in the OSP so they can be reviewed and approved by the certifier prior to use.

Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations

 

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 8003

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Reproductive Management from Breeding through Freshening

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:34pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

The Fundamentals of Reproduction

A sound reproductive program is essential to the financial health of the organic dairy. A fundamental goal should be to breed cows back in a timely manner so that daily milk production remains high and a steady supply of new heifers is available for replacements or sale. Organic dairies cannot use artificial hormones for breeding or for treating reproductive problems. Instead, they must rely on an understanding of the heat cycle, good heat detection, and natural alternative treatments to keep the pregnancy rate high.

Reproduction, however, can be negatively impacted by a number of factors including (but certainly not limited to) poor nutrition, inadequate heat detection, mishandling of semen and insemination technique, diseases, weather stresses, and housing (e.g., slippery floors). Having a basic understanding of the anatomy and physiology of your dairy cows will help you to better troubleshoot their reproductive problems.

Breeding

Organic dairies cannot use artificial hormones for breeding or to treat reproductive problems. Instead they must rely on an understanding of the heat cycle, good heat detection, and natural alternative treatments to keep the pregnancy rate high.

Observing a standing heat is the best way to judge the time to inseminate or breed a cow. Some farms may use paint heat detection devices (check with your certifier to see if these are allowed) or other physical methods but nothing beats watching your cows for heats twice daily. This will occur most naturally on pasture where cows have good footing, but can also be accomplished inside if floors are not slippery and if the cows have room to move.

Cows ovulate about 12 to 16 hours after a standing heat so most producers use the "Morning-Evening" rule for breeding. If a farmer observes a cow in standing heat in the morning, he/she will breed her that evening; if a cow is observed in standing heat in the evening, she will be bred in the morning.

Although frozen semen contains small amounts of antibiotics, artificial insemination is allowed on organic dairies for safety reasons and to improve genetics by breeding for selected traits. Some farms still use natural service (breeding by a bull) if good heat detection is difficult, for "clean-up" (breeding cows that have not been successfully bred by AI), or on virgin heifers. Additionally, some farmers feel that available semen does not possess the genetic traits they desire. All bulls are potentially dangerous animals and you should manage them with caution and respect and follow some basic considerations.

Guidelines for Working Safely with Bulls
  • Raise bull calves in a group or on a nurse cow for proper socialization.
  • Know aggressive behavior in bulls.
  • Never run from bulls.
  • Remove bulls from herd at the first sign of aggressive behavior.
Reproductive Challenges

After mastitis, reproductive problems are usually the second biggest headache for dairy producers (both conventional and organic), but a systematic approach can help you solve many of these problems. A brief summary of the major bovine reproductive problems is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of reproductive challenges, potential causes, and management considerations. Challenge Definition Factors Involved Management Considerations Anestrus--True Failure to come into heat; ovaries are not cycling.
  • Lack of energy in diet.
  • Low hormone levels because of feeding excessive stored feeds.
  • Cystic ovaries.
  • Uterine infections.
  • Anemia.
  • Evaluate ration for energy balance.
  • Feed adequate amounts of trace minerals (selenium, iron, copper, phosphorous) and vitamins.
  • Feed fresh forage or stored forages that contain estrogens (red clover).
  • Have veterinarian perform physical to detect anemia, cystic ovaries, or infections.
Anestrus Failure to detect heats.
  • Poor animal identification.
  • Poor record-keeping.
  • Cows in an environment where they cannot express estrus (crowded).
  • Not enough time to watch cows.
  • Keep good estrous cycle records.
  • Increase time spent watching cows.
  • Provide good footing.
  • Consider tail paint.
Cystic Ovaries Large cysts on ovaries that last more than 10 days; cows may be constantly in heat or not cycling.
  • High estrogens in feeds (legumes or molds).
  • Genetics.
  • Calcium:Phosphorus ratio greater than 2:1.
  • Older cows.
  • Forage analysis (calcium, phosphorus, mycotoxins).
  • Avoid cows and bulls that produce cystic daughters.
Persistent CLs (corpus luteum) CLs that are present on the ovary beyond 20 days in a non-pregnant cow.
  • High milk production.
  • Uterine infection.
  • Evaluate diet for energy imbalance (too little energy).
Retained Placenta (RP) Failure to drop placenta within 24 hours of calving.
  • Twin births or difficult calvings.
  • Selenium/vitamin E/vitamin A deficiencies.
  • Fat dry cows.
  • Infection (bacterial or viral).
  • Low-grade milk fever.
  • Review selenium and vitamin A and E levels in dry cow diet.
  • Avoid weight gain in dry period.
  • Select bulls for easy calving.
  • Calcium supplements.
Metritis Infected discharge that last more than 2 weeks post-calving.
  • Secondary to retained placenta.
  • Difficult calving.
  • Poor hygiene during an assisted calving.
  • Calve in clean areas and use sanitized equipment when assisting calving.
  • Address factors that result in RPs.
  • Feed maximum amounts of vitamin E/selenium.
Pyometra Severe infection of uterus with yellow, foul-smelling discharge.
  • See metritis (above).
  • Poor infusion technique when treating metritis.
  • See metritis (above).
  • Uterine infusion by veterinarian (iodine, chlorhexidine-check with certifier).
  • Antibiotics, prostaglandins, and removal from herd in severe cases.
Repeat Breeders Cows requiring 3 or more inseminations.
  • Poor insemination technique.
  • Improper handling of semen.
  • Early death of embryo (rough rectals, bacterial, or viral infection).
  • Bull infertility.
  • Sexually spread diseases.
  • Heat stress.
  • Culture/testing for infectious diseases.
  • Good quality forage.
  • Careful timing of breeding.
  • New bull tested for high fertility.
  • Review AI technique and semen handling.
  • Veterinary examination.
  • Vaccination.
Abortions Loss of calf between 42 and 260 days.
  • Genetic problems.
  • Fungal toxins.
  • Bacterial and viral infections.
  • Multiple calves.
  • Injury (rough palpation).
  • Nitrate/nitrite poisoning.
  • Neospora.
  • Forage/feed analysis.
  • Vaccination.
  • Testing of aborted fetus.
  • Water analysis.
  • Careful palpation.
Alternative Reproductive Therapies

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Homeopathy, dependent on cow's presentation and symptoms.
  • Botanicals, wild yam/cramp bark/black cohosh, flax seed, evening primrose, dong quai, and vitamin B6 daily until heat.
  • Herbal antibiotic tincture infusion.
  • Metritis: garlic/aloe infusion.
  • Pyometra: pulsatilla infusion.
  • Failure to cycle: damiana.
Care and Management of the Fresh Cow

Management of the fresh cow actually begins during the dry period. Nutrition (energy balance, minerals, and vitamin levels) is one area of greatest impact. The length of the dry period is also a consideration for healthy fresh cows. It should be long enough (more than 45 days so that udder dry off is complete and taking advantage of natural healing factors) but not too long (more than 60 days is too long and cows risk becoming fat). Rather than sending dry cows to a "back 40" pasture and forgetting about them, observe them regularly.

Fresh cows are fragile cows and should be monitored closely so that problems can be detected promptly, allowing for timely interventions. What happens to a cow during the first month after calving can set the stage for the rest of her lactation. Designing a fresh cow protocol (Table 2) to ensure that all cows get consistent evaluation and management is recommended.

Table 2. Recommended fresh cow procedures. Timing Management Intervention Immediately after calving.
  • Offer large amounts of fresh warm water.
  • Offer excellent quality dry hay.
  • Note if placenta drops by 24 hours.
First 10 days (perform daily).
  • Take rectal temperature daily (should be less than 103°C).
  • Note appetite, water consumption, and milk production.
  • Examine udder.
  • Test milk with California Mastitis Test.
  • Observe vulva for abnormal discharges.
  • Listen to abdomen for rumen contractions.

Disease and problems happen on every dairy farm. However if fresh cow problems increase, the total system should be reviewed (including soil balance, crops, management of dry cows, housing, etc.) so changes can be made to prevent problems in the future. Table 3 lists common fresh cow problems, contributing factors, signs, and treatments.

Table 3. Common fresh cow problems and management considerations. Fresh Cow Problem Signs Contributing Factors Management and Treatment Milk Fever
  • Down, trembling or wobbly cow.
  • Cold ears.
  • Normal or below normal temperature.
  • Jersey breed.
  • Older cow.
  • Calcium:phosphorus ratio in diet.
  • Magnesium deficient dry cow diet.
  • High potassium forage.
  • 500 ml calcium (± magnesium and phosphorus) in the vein and under the skin.
  • Calcium tubes orally (no calcium proprionate).
  • Forage analysis (reduce potassium, increase magnesium in dry cow diet).
Grass Tetany
  • Nervousness.
  • Wobbly cow.
  • Muscle spasms.
  • Low magnesium in forages, more common in rapid growth pastures.Improve soils to increase magnesium in forages.
  • Add 1–2 oz. magnesium/cow/day to diet.
  • Limit pasture during times of rapid growth.
  • Administer 500 ml of magnesium containing electrolyte solution in the vein.
  • Improve soils to increase magnesium in forages.
  • Add 1–2 oz. magnesium/cow/day to diet.
  • Limit pasture during times of rapid growth.
  • Administer 500 ml of magnesium containing electrolyte solution in the vein.
Ketosis
  • Decreased appetite.
  • Decrease milk production.
  • Ketone smell on breath.
  • Nervous behavior.
  • Other disease in the cow (twisted stomach, mastitis, uterine infection).
  • Cobalt deficiency.
  • Fat cows at calving.
  • Prevent over-conditioning in the dry period.
  • Introduce concentrates slowly in pre-fresh period.
  • IV or oral dextrose.
  • Oral glycerin (from vegetable fats).
  • Niacin boluses and other B vitamins.
  • Molasses in diet.
  • High-quality forage and feed.
  • Avoid major diet changes in early lactation.
Displaced Abomasum (Left side=LDA, right side=RDA)
  • Off feed.
  • "Ping" on left or right side of abdomen.
  • Inadequate roughage in diet.
  • Milk fever.
  • Lack of exercise.
  • Other condition that decreases appetite.
  • Call veterinarian for surgical intervention.
  • Fluid therapy if dehydrated.
  • Manage ketosis and milk fever.
  • Increase fiber in diet.
  • Provide adequate exercise.
Metabolic Acidosis
  • Low milk fat test.
  • Lameness.
  • Diarrhea.
  • Liver abscesses.
  • Poor cud chewing.
  • Too much carbohydrate in feed.
  • Finely chopped forage.
  • Low fiber content of diet.
  • Mycotoxins.
  • Fast changes from high fiber to high concentrate diet.
  • Foamy manure.
  • Add sodium bicarbonate to diet or feed free choice.
  • Avoid slug feeding.
  • Evaluate fiber levels and particle size in diet.
  • Add probiotics to ration.
  • Activated charcoal in acute cases.
Alternative Therapies for the Fresh Cow

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Milk fever: 2 oz. apple cider vinegar twice daily for 2 weeks prefresh; homeopathy (Calc phos).
  • Ketosis: molasses orally.
  • LDA: ginger, gentian, cayenne, sodium bicarbonate, caffeine twice daily.
Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 8004

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Effect of Housing and Cow Comfort on Health and Disease

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:33pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Animal Housing

Housing for adult cattle varies with climate, finances, and farmer preference. Housing on organic farms varies from year-round housing on pasture with run-in sheds or woodlots for shelter to freestalls and greenhouse constructions. Certain cow comfort basics must be met in all housing designs. Discomfort, dirty conditions, and poor ventilation will stress the immune system and cows will be more susceptible to disease. During the grazing season, all cattle over the age of six months must have pasture, and during the non grazing season, they must have daily outdoor access and exercise unless one of the exemptions in §205.239 (b) & (c) applies.

Ventilation

Good air exchange is essential. Fresh air should enter the barn and move warmer, contaminated air out. The temperature difference between the outside and inside during winter months should be no more than 10°F.

Flooring

Dry pasture that is free of small stones is the ideal surface for cow health and lameness prevention. Standing on hard concrete all day can cause hoof damage and can strain the cows’ feet and legs. Cows sometimes do spend the majority of the day indoors, for example, during the harsh Northeast winters. Avoid slick concrete flooring so cows do not slip and can feel secure enough to express natural heats. Concrete floors can be grooved to provide better traction (grooves should be 0.5 inches deep, 0.5 inches wide and 2 to 3 inches apart) or rubber mats may be used for comfort and to provide good footing.

Access to Feed and Water

Cows housed in tiestall and stanchions have their own assigned bunk space for feeding. In freestall situations, at least 30 inches of bunk space per cow is recommended. If there is only 16 to 24 inches of bunk space per cow, the risk for fresh cow disease increases.

Daily water requirements for dairy cows vary with weather, type and quality of feed, and production. A 1,500 pound cow producing 40 pounds of milk on a 40°F day requires 18 gallons of water per day; on a 80°F day, she will need 25.5 gallons of water per day. The recommended water trough size (if individual waterers are not available) is 3 inches per cow.

Stalls

Cows prefer to spend much of their day lying down (12 to 14 hours). Blood flow through the udder increases by 30% when cows are resting, thereby increasing milk production. Time spent lying in stalls also increases rumination and rests the cows’ feet and legs.

Properly designed stalls should allow cows to have the freedom to lunge and move forward and side to side while rising and lying down, but they should not be so wide that cows lie improperly in stalls and cleanliness is an issue. Stalls should be properly sized for both breed size and age of cattle (heifers require smaller stalls than adult cattle). Guidelines for sizing stalls (both tie- and freestalls) are included in Table 1.

Table 1. Recommended Dimensions for Tiestall and Freestall Facilities Stall Type Dimension Ratio & Reference Body Dimension Average Holstein Tiestall Facilities Bed length 1.2 x rump height 1.2 x 60 = 72" Tie rail height above cow's feet 0.8 x rump height 0.8 x 60 = 48" Stall width 2.0 hook bone width 2.0 x 26 = 52" Freestall Facilities Stall length from curb to solid front 2.0 x rump height 2.0 x 60 = 120" Stall length for open front (head to head) 1.8 x rump height 1.8 x 60 = 108" Bed length (imprint length) 1.2 x rump height 1.2 x 60 = 72" Neck rail height above cow's feet 0.83 x rump height 0.83 x 60 = 50" Neck rail forward location (bed length) 1.2 x rump height 1.2 x 60 = 72" Stall width (loops on center) 2.0 hook bone width 2.0 x 26 = 52" Space between brisket board and loop Foot width 5" Brisket board location (from curb) 1.1 x rump height 1.1 x 60 = 66" Source: OMAFRA, 2007. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/info_tsdimen.htm. Bedded Packs

Bedded and composted bedded packs are increasing in popularity. Loose housing barns provide cows with one large resting area rather than individual stalls so these types of facilities are also quite economical. Bedded packs canprovide great cow comfort and reduced lameness when managed properly. Ideally, a 100 square foot area (or more) is allotted per cow. Sawdust, straw, or shavings are the most common bedding materials for bedded packs.

Good management practices are essential to maintain cleanliness and to reduce bacterial growth in packs. In compost bedded packs, the top 10 to 12 inches of bedding should be stirred twice daily while the cows are being milked. Fresh bedding should be added daily so the top surface (which is in contact with the cow) remains clean and dry.

Bedding

Bedding is essential for cow comfort and cleanliness and falls into two categories (organic and inorganic). The choice of bedding for your farm depends on your manure handling system, availability, price, and personal preference. Remember, 205.239 (a) (2) requires that if roughages are used as bedding, they must be certified organic. It is also important to remember that with inorganic bedding, bacterial numbers can soar into the millions if it is contaminated with manure, milk, feed, or urine. Any bedding can be acceptable if the stalls are groomed regularly and fresh clean bedding is added on a regular basis. Table 2. reviews the advantages and disadvantages of commonly available bedding materials.

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of commonly used bedding materials. Bedding Type Class Advantages Disadvantages Straw or Hay* Organic • Easily accessible, absorbent.
• Works with most manure systems.
• Less expensive than others.
• Very comfortable if sufficient amounts used.
• Can be grown on the farm. • Good nutrient source for bacteria once wet.
• Promotes Strep mastitis bacteria and flies. Sawdust/shavings (non pressure-treated wood) Organic • Easily sourced in Northeast.
• Works with most manure systems.
• Low to moderate expense. • Supports bacterial growth when wet.
• Associated with Klebsiella mastitis. Newsprint Organic • Easily accessible.
• Inexpensive.
• Can work with most manure systems. • Supports bacterial growth.
• Glossy/colored inserts must be removed. Rice Hulls* Organic • Inexpensive.
• Very dry.
• Work well with manure systems. • Supports growth of mastitis bacteria when wet. Manure Solids Organic • Readily available.
• Inexpensive.
• Reduces waste to be spread.
• Requires investment in drying or composting system.
• Comfortable.
• Can be made on the farm. • Easily supports bacterial growth when wet. Old Feed (TMR, silage, refusals)* Organic • Readily available
• Inexpensive • Supports bacterial growth
• Contaminated with yeast/mold, leading to increased yeast mastitis Sand Inorganic • Available
• Does not support bacterial growth unless contaminated
• Excellent cow comfort • All manure systems may not handle well  Gypsum Inorganic • Does not support bacterial growth • Decreased cow comfort
• Must not come from recycled wallboard  *Must be certified organic    Pasture

Well-maintained pastures are nature’s perfect housing, complete with good footing, ventilation, and sunshine to enhance animal health. It is no wonder then that graziers refer to it as "Dr. Green." On the other hand, poorly maintained pastures can have a severe negative impact on animal health and increase the risk of disease. Care should be taken to fence off wet areas (creeks, ponds, and swampy sections) so that cows do not stand in water or lie in mud. Shaded pasture areas can become contaminated and harbor millions of mastitis-causing bacteria if pastures are not rotated.

Evaluating Cow Comfort

You can assess cow comfort on your farm by using the NYSCHAP hock-scoring guide. More than 95% of cows should have normal hocks, without swellings or abrasions. If more than 5% of the herd has abnormal hocks, you should reassess your housing, bedding, and pasture conditions and identify areas of improvement.

Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations

 

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 7999

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Youngstock Management

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:32pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Introduction

Heifer calves are the future of the herd. Since the greatest risks for sickness and death are during the first eight weeks of life, spending time and attention developing good youngstock health during the first months of life will be a profitable investment for years to come.

Good calf management begins during the dry period of the dam by providing proper nutrition for calf development (particularly supplementing her diet with selenium and vitamin E to enhance immune function) and a clean and comfortable environment for calving. Maternity pens or stalls should be separated from other adult housing areas and cleaned out between calvings in the winter months to reduce the risk of infecting newborn calves with Johne’s disease. In warmer weather, maternity pastures should be large enough so that calving cows have adequate space.

The following are youngstock best management practices.

  • Ensure adequate colostrum intake. This is the single most important step in maintaining neonatal health.
  • Maximize calf's immunity through nutrition.
  • Maintain excellent sanitation to reduce the number of germs the calf encounters.
  • Avoid overcrowding pens. Allow enough space for feeders and waterers so that even the smallest calf has access.
  • Maintain adequate ventilation and moving air.
  • Isolate sick calves to better observe and to prevent disease spread.
  • Delay weaning if calves are unthrifty or ill.
  • Use dedicated youngstock pastures. Do not graze calves on adult pastures.
Colostrum

Ensuring adequate colostrum intake is the single most important step in maintaining neonatal health. Colostrum is the milk produced during the few days prior to and after calving. It is rich in protein, fat, antibodies, vitamins, and minerals, and contains many bio-active substances (lactoferrin and enzymes) that help prevent disease in the newborn. Calves receive very few antibodies while they are in the womb. They rely on antibodies absorbed across the gut from the colostrum during the first day of life. After 24 hours, the intestinal wall no longer permits the absorption of antibodies so it is essential that colostrum intake happen immediately. Vaccinating cows with appropriate vaccines (especially for scours) during the dry period will increase antibodies passed on to the calf.

Calves should receive two to four quarts (depending on breed and size) of good quality colostrum within the first hour of life and again 12 hours later. Nursing the dam is acceptable in a Johne’s free herd; otherwise, colostrum should be fed by bottle or carefully with an esophageal feeder.

There may be times when banking colostrum is appropriate for farms. Second lactation and older animals produce richer colostrum higher in antibodies than first-calf heifers. If a herd is Johne’s positive, it is a good idea to freeze colostrum from test-negative cows to feed to the calves from Johne’s positive dams.

Directions for Banking Colostrum
  1. Freeze colostrum from Johne’s negative second lactation and older cows in gallon-size resealable plastic bags. They can then be placed flat with wax paper between bags in an ordinary freezer and stored for up to six months.
  2. Thaw colostrum slowly in warm water (do NOT microwave).
  3.  Stir before feeding and feed in a sanitized bottle or esophageal feeder.
Housing

Calf housing varies with farmer preference and the level of disease on an individual farm. Regardless of the option chosen, all calves older than six months must have access to the outdoors. The advantages and disadvantages of various housing options are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of calf housing options. Type of Housing
 Advantages Disadvantages Individual hutches Completely separates calves and spread of disease.
Can be disinfected after use.
Easily moved and modified. Worker discomfort feeding calves during winter months or severe weather.
No socialization among calves. Greenhouse with individual pens Worker comfort.
Can alter ventilation in greenhouse according to weather. May increase risk for spread of disease if pens are close together.
Expensive. Existing barn with individual pens Worker comfort.
Less expensive. Often reduced ventilation.
Difficult to clean or maintain. Tied in lactating barn Low cost.
Ease of care. Risk of disease spread.
Difficult to clean and sanitize.
Restricted movement for calves. Group pens Reduced cost.
Inter-calf socialization. Risk for disease spread.
Difficult to observe individual animals (manure, appetite, urine). Pastured with dam Natural nutrition.
Access to pasture, ventilation, and sunlight.
Natural socialization. Potential spread of Johne’s and other diseases.
Spread of contagious mastitis.
Difficult to observe individual animals (manure, appetite, urine). Nutrition

Nutrition programs for calves vary among organic farms, but the common denominator among all of them is fresh, whole milk. Although some farms feed low-quality milk (high somatic cell count or abnormal milk) to calves, whole milk fit for human consumption is preferred. The first eight weeks of a calf’s life are important and it should be fed high-quality feed to boost its immune system.

Calf Nutrition Best Management Practices
  • Calves should be fed milk equivalent to 8% to 10% of body weight per day. (e.g., an 80 lb. calf should receive 6–8 lbs. of milk or about a gallon a day, divided into two to three feedings.
  • There are many delivery systems for milk (bottles, buckets, mob feeders). All equipment should be washed, sanitized, and allowed to dry thoroughly after each use.
  • Calves should have access to fresh, clean water at all times. Amounts will vary with grain and hay intake, recommended amounts are two to five gallons per day.
  • Good quality calf starter, dry hay, and pasture can be introduced free choice after the first week.
  • The most common weaning age is eight weeks, but if parasites or scours are an issue, milk can be fed longer.
  • Weaning is stressful, so do it gradually when calves are eating enough starter, quality hay, or pasture. Do not wean when calves are adjusting to other stresses (housing changes or dehorning).
  • Some farms raise calves in groups of two to three on nurse cows, which is quite efficient both for growth and labor. Nurse cow should be test-negative for Johne’s disease.
  • Avoid feeding milk with contagious mastitis pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Mycoplasma) if calves are group housed. Group housed calves may cross-suckle, spreading these organisms among each other which can result in first-calf heifers freshening with contagious mastitis.
Preventive Healthcare for Calves

An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, especially when raising youngstock. Having simple best management practices in place and protocols for workers to follow will help ensure that all calves get optimal treatment every time. Table 2 lists basic calf health preventive practices appropriate for all farms

Table 2. Routine preventive healthcare practices for calf management. Practice Age Comments Navel disinfection Birth Navel should be dipped in tincture of iodine (2–7%) to disinfect and help seal umbilical cord. Animal identification Birth Especially important for herds with multiple calvings in a week.Allows you to begin your animal health recordkeeping easily and early. Dehorning 2-3 months Multiple methods available (mechanical gougers or electric/butane iron). Local anesthesia with lidocaine or procaine is strongly recommended. During warmer months, an approved fly repellant should be used on area to prevent fly strike. Extra teats 2-3 months Remove at time of dehorning. Vaccinations 4-6 months and at breeding Need and type of vaccinations will vary by farm. Vaccines to consider:
IBR (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis).
BVD (bovine viral diarrhea, Type I and Type II).
BRSV (bovine respiratory synctitial virus). Pinkeye (Moraxella bovis).
Leptospirosis.
Brucella vaccination (4–8 months). Ventilation Always To check the barn ventilation, sit on the floor where the calves’ heads are and check the air quality. It may seem fine six feet above the ground, but barn walls and pen dividers can make it quite stale at calf level.

An excellent, though conventional, source of calf management information, written by Dr. Sam Leadley, is available at: www.calfnotes.com. Information on management, hygiene, and calfhood issues are of benefit to organic farmers.

Scours (Neonatal Diarrhea)

Scours are one of the most common health problems affecting calves on any dairy (roughly 50% of calf deaths are due to scours). However, good management can go a long way in reducing the number of cases per year and the severity of the disease. As always, if a farm is experiencing an outbreak of scours, the question to ask is “What is wrong with management?” not “What should I treat it with?” Table 3 lists basic causes of scours in calves, methods of diagnosis, and specific management recommendations.

Table 3. Scours management: common causes (agents), symptoms, and management comments. Agent and Source Age Affected Symptoms Method of Diagnosis Comments Escherichia coli
“white scours”
(environment) First 1-2 weeks Severe diarrhea, fever, dehydration, death Fecal culture Dry cow vaccination; calve in clean dry area Salmonella
(environment: adult cattle, rodents, birds) Any age, but usually more than 10 days Watery diarrhea ± blood, loss of appetite, high fever, membrane like substances in feces, death Fecal culture Salmonella DT–104 is a major human health hazard Clostridium perfringens A, C, & D
(soil and intestinal flora, overfeeding, stress, hot weather) Usually less than 10 days Painful abdomen, bloating, acute death without symptoms Culture gut loops of dead calves Vaccination Corona and Rota virus
(adult cattle) 10-14 days Watery diarrhea, usually no fever, depression, drooling, dehydration Fresh colon from necropsied calf Can be complicated by E. coli infection Bovine Viral
Diarrhea (BVD)
(infected cattle) Any age Long-term diarrhea, fever, rapid breathing, may have sores in mouth and nose Blood test, fresh colon, intestinal lymph node, ear notch Vaccination Cryptosporidium
(environment) 7-21 days Watery diarrhea, abdominal pain, no fever Fecal flotation Can spread to humans Coccidiosis
(environment) >21 days; commonly at weaning Watery diarrhea ± blood, dehydration Fecal flotation Associated with unclean environment, overcrowding, and stress Intestinal parasites
(environment) 2-3 months or older Diarrhea, poor growth, pot-bellies, poor hair coat, pale gums (from anemia) Fecal flotation Associated with unclean environment, overcrowding Scours Management and Treatment Practices
  • Oral electrolytes: Dehydration is the number one reason calves with scours die. Electrolyte solutions are available commercially or you can make them at home. Provide them at the first signs of scours. If the calf will drink, electrolytes can be fed in buckets or bottles. If the calf will not drink, administer the electrolytes with an esophageal feeder. Feed one pint per 10 pounds three to four times a day between milk feedings.
  • Probiotics: These products contain "good" bacteria (Lactobacillus, etc.) that compete with the scours bacteria in the gut. They can be fed preventively or as a part of a treatment regimen for scouring calves. Review these products with your certifier first to ensure there are no GMOs and that all ingredients are allowed.
  • Nutrition: Calves need nutrients to help them fight disease and to recover. Withholding milk is not recommended.
  • Mannan-oligosaccharides: These are complex sugars from yeast cell walls. "Bad" bacteria, such as E. coli, bind to these yeast sugars, which travel through the intestinal track and out into the manure. Because the “bad” bacteria are bound to the mannan-oligosaccharides, they cannot attach to the gut wall and cause disease. These products can be fed preventively or as part of treatment regimen.
  • ImmunoboostTM: See the section on Immune Stimulants in Alternative and Complementary Treatment and Medicines.
  • Passive antibodies: See the section on Immune Stimulants in Alternative and Complementary Treatment and Medicines.
  • Dewormers: Document best management practices and natural dewormers used. The only allowed conventional dewormers for organic cattle are fenbendazole, ivermectin, and moxidectin but these products can only be used on an emergency basis after documented alternatives have failed and after a veterinarian has checked the calves’ manure samples and determined that worms (nematodes) are the problem for the farm. There is a 90-day mandatory milk withhold for organic animals treated with these dewormers, and treated animals can never be used as organic slaughter stock. Contact your certifier before treating.
Alternative Therapies for Scours

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Putting the calf back on the dam to nurse. Best for mild scours in a Johne's-free herd.
  • Ferrous iron and tannin supplements.
  • Black walnut hulls and/or wormwood: both have been used as dewormers in folk medicine.
  • Slippery elm bark powder.
  • Aloe vera/garlic tincture.
  • Crushed garlic.
  • Homeopathy, determined by calf's presentation and symptoms.
  • Chamomile or fennel teas.
  • Organic yogurt.
Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases in Calves

Pneumonia is any infection of the lungs. Signs are fever, coughing, and labored breathing. After scours, it is the second cause of death in heifers and calves. All the best management practices for scours also apply for the prevention and management of respiratory disease.

Pneumonia may be caused by virus, bacteria, or mechanical damage. Weaning, dehorning, transporting, and mixing calves from different farms are stressful events that may trigger episodes of respiratory disease. Pneumonia is also associated with changes in weather, particularly in poorly ventilated calf barns. Good ventilation is essential. Table 4 lists the common causes of respiratory disease in calves, symptoms, and good management practices.

Table 4. Respiratory disease management: common causes (agents), symptoms, and management comments. Agent and Source Symptoms Comments Bovine Respiratory Syncitial Virus (BRSV)
Infection Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR)
Parainfluenza Type 3
(Diseased cattle or healthy carriers) Coughing, trouble breathing, fever, eye and nose discharge, death Best prevented through good management, nutrition, and vaccination Pasteurella species
(repiratory tract of normal animals) Depression, nasal discharge, high fevers (107°F), coughing Often follows a viral respiratory disease Hemophilus species
(respiratory and reproductive tracts) Difficulty swallowing, bawling, labored breathing Prevent with good management, vaccination Mycoplasma species
(respiratory tract, infected milk) Mild to severe pneumonia, head tilt or ear infections, eye infections, swollen joints DO NOT feed milk from Mycoplasma-positive cows, or pasteurize milk Aspiration pneumonia
(poor technique with esophageal feeder, careless drenching) Cough, fever, sudden death Care during feeding and drenching Respiratory Disease Management and Treatment Practices
  • Improve ventilation.
  • Increase hydration.
  • Vaccinate with one of the nasal vaccines early in the outbreak.
  • Administer passive antibodies for Pasteurella, ImmunoboostTM, Vitamin B and C injections.
  • Administer anti-inflammatories (aspirin) to reduce fever and prevent lung damage.
  • Consider antibiotics. In cases where the calf is not responding to the above treatments, antibiotics must be given to prevent suffering. Animals treated with antibiotics must be removed from organic production.
Alternative Therapies for Respiratory Disease

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Herbal antibiotic tinctures.
  • Garlic.
  • Homeopathy, determined by calf's presentation and symptoms.
  • Essential oils (eucalyptus).
Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations

 

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 7998

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Alternative and Complementary Treatment and Medicines

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:31pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Introduction

Complementary and alternative veterinary medicines (CAVM) are treatments not currently considered part of conventional medicine. The term "complementary" defines treatments that are used in conjunction with conventional therapies and the term "alternative" indicates those that are used instead of conventional medicine. CAVM includes most common botanical (herbal) medicines, homeopathy, acupuncture, and chiropractic medicine.

The goal of this article is to give the reader a general overview of therapies commonly used on organic dairies, but it will not go into specific details. There are several excellent texts by Drs. Karreman, Sheaffer, and Dettloff, among others that should be in every transitioning dairy farmer’s library (see the list of citations at the end of this article). Additionally, many organic groups organize workshops and meetings with experts in these fields. These meetings should be a priority  if you wish to become skilled in alternative medicine.

Botanicals

Botanical medicine uses plants and plant substances as medicines. These are some of our most ancient treatments and are still in use as primary medical therapies in many parts of the world. Many modern, conventional medicines have their origins in botanical therapies.

Botanicals can be administered in a number of ways. The most common forms are tinctures (alcohol extractions), tisanes (hot water extractions), essential oils topically applied, or the consumption of whole or parts of dried herbs. Dried herbs may also be administered in gelatin boluses or capsules. Table 1. lists commonly used botanicals.

Potential hazards of botanical medicine include the following.

  • Not inherently safe and dose is important. May be a narrow line between beneficial effects and toxicity.
  • Difficult to standardize dose. Growing conditions vary by location and year, and affect the concentrations of medically active substances in plants.
  • Production methods may include impurities.
  • Milk and meat withdrawals have not been established.
  • Few botanicals have been critically evaluated in ruminants. Since we produce food (milk and meat) we need to be cautious of potential residues from plant medicines just as conventional farmers are careful about residues from conventional medicines.
Table 1. Commonly used botanicals on organic farms. Common and Scientific Name Parts Used Uses Toxicities Aloe vera
Aloe spp. Leaves Topically: rashes, cuts, burns
Internally: Digestive aid, antispasmodic,
immune stimulant Digestive upset,
colic, diarrhea Black cohosh
Cimicifuga Rhizomes Reproduction Liver disease Black walnut
Juglans nigra Hulls Intestinal parasites, diarrhea Laminitis, seizures,
respiratory failure Boneset
Eupatorium perfoliatum Leaves, flowers Immune stimulant, bone pain, fever Diarrhea, skin irritation Burdock
Arctium spp. Root, leaves Blood cleanser, diuretic, skin disease None known Calendula
Calendula officinalis Flowers Incorporated into salves or ointments for abrasions, eyewash, mouth ulcers, skin irritations None known Cayenne
Capiscum spp. Ground fruit Stimulate local circulation, pain, antimicrobial Irritation Cedar
Thuja Leaves, twigs Topically for warts, chronic skin problems, upper respiratory problems Abortion, digestive upset Chamomile
Matricaria recutita Flower heads Digestive disorders, mild sedative None known Comfrey
Symphytum officinale Leaves, root Bone healing, commonly used as a poultice for wounds, acute mastitis, teat injuries Internal uses can be extremely toxic: liver toxicity and failure; liver cancer Damiana
Turnera diffusa Leaves Used to stimulate estrus None known Dandelion
Taraxacum officinale Leaves, root Cleansing tonic for liver, udder edema None known Fenugreek
Trigonella foenum-graecum Seeds, leaves Stimulate milk production Muscle disease, anemia Foxglove
Digitalis lanata Leaves, roots, seeds Heart disease Extremely toxic: 6–7 oz. of fresh leaves can kill a cow; nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, slowed/abnormal heartbeat, hallucinations Garlic
Allium sativum Bulb, cloves Antibiotic, antifungal, dewormer Bleeding, anemia Ginger
Zingiber oficinale Root Digestive upset Bleeding Ginseng
Panax ginseng Root Immune stimulant, increase fertility, mastitis None known Goldenseal
Hydrastis canadensis Whole plant Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, laxative, digestive disorders, increase bile flow Diarrhea, seizures at high doses Marshmallow
Althaea officinalis Root Digestive and urinary disorders, diarrhea, chronic coughs None known Milk thistle
Silybum eburneum Seed, leaves Liver damage, giardia, ketosis prevention None known Pau d’arco
Tabebuia impetiginosa Inner bark Antibacterial, antifungal, immune stimulant Skin irritation Pokeweed
Phytolacca spp. Berries, root Most commonly used homeopathically: tumors, mastitis Extremely toxic: colic, diarrhea, respiratory failure, weakness, death Purple coneflower
Echinacea purpurea Root Immune stimulant, antiviral None known Sage
Salvia Leaves Indigestion, decrease lactation Large doses: dizziness, increased heart rate St. John’s wort
Hypericum perforatum Flowers, plants, stems Antidepressant, nerve pain Restlessness, confusion, depression, circling; skin irritation; abortions, reduced milk production Tea tree oil
Melaleuca alternifolia Oil from leaves Antimicrobial, skin infections: bacteria, fungal, yeast NOT FOR ORAL USE Valerian
Valeriana officianalis Root Sedative Very safe White willow
Salix spp. Bark Anti-inflammatory:
fever, injuries, pain Digestive upsets Wolfbane or leopard’s
bane
Arnica montana Leaves Bruising, inflammation NOT FOR ORAL USE,
most commonly used
homeopathically Wormwood
Artemisia absinthium;
Artemisia annua Leaves Dewormer, insect repellent Digestive disorders,
hallucinations/delirium,
paralysis, death Homeopathy

Homeopathy, developed in Western Europe, bases treatments on the Law of Similars or "like treating like." The concept is similar to conventional medicine vaccinations where small amounts of dead or live bacteria or viruses are introduced into the body to stimulate the body’s immune response, helping the body do the real disease fighting.

In homeopathy, substances that would create adverse symptoms in a human or animal are extremely diluted and shaken, or succussed (a homeopathy term), at each step of dilution. These dilute remedies (10X = diluted 1:10 ten times; 30C = diluted 1:100 thirty times; 10M = diluted 1:1,000 ten times) are used to treat symptoms that the original product would have created. The more dilute a remedy, the greater its potency. These dilutions are administered as a liquid or by lactose spheres onto which homeopathic companies have sprayed the remedy. The liquid or tablet homeopathic remedies are placed in contact with mucous membranes (mouth, nasal passages, or vulva). Typically, remedies are administered more frequently (up to six times a day) early in the disease and then tapered down as symptoms regress.

A basic philosophy of homeopathy is that each animal is unique and so there are no "one size fits all" recommendations. Successful homeopathic treatment relies on fully assessing or repertorizing (a homeopathy term) the animal, taking into account not only the symptoms present (fever, diarrhea, cystic ovary, etc.), but the location (e.g., cystic right ovary) and the animal’s behavior. Once all of these conditions are noted, you can look up the appropriate therapies in the Homeopathic Materia Medica (Macleod, 2004).

Immune Stimulants

Organic dairy production and the integration of soil and crop health with animal health enhances the animal’s immune system. As a standard, try to increase the cows’ immunity through holistic methods: reducing stress, proper nutrition, considering comfort and welfare, vaccinating, and good husbandry. On occasion, organic farmers use other products to stimulate the immune system, including some of the following.

Colostral-whey Injections

These products are produced from the colostrum of hypervaccinated cows. These pasteurized products contain antibodies (immunoglobulins) and other immunologically active proteins (lymphokines, cytokines, lactoferrin, and enzymes) that attempt to generally stimulate the immune system. These products are available from a variety of companies and some are more specific than others (e.g., Strep specific, Staph aureus specific). You must ensure that the colostrum-whey product you use comes from cows managed organically.

ImmunoboostTM

This product is a biological stimulant produced from the cell wall of dead mycobacterium. The USDA licenses it to treat calf scours due to E. coli. Some veterinarians use this product off-label as a general immunostimulant.

Nosodes

Nosodes are the "vaccinations" of homeopathy created from a diseased organ or discharge (e.g., mastitis culture) in the same dilution and succussion process described earlier. Commonly, they are administered before anticipated exposure to a disease or as part of a treatment regimen. Currently there is no scientific evidence in conventional veterinary literature proving that nosodes confer the same amount of immune protection as conventional vaccinations.

Hyperimmunized Serum

These products provide passive antibodies and are most often used to combat diseases (pneumonia and scours) caused by gram-negative bacteria (E. coli, Salmonella, and Pasteurella) or by clostridial diseases. Companies produce these products by hypervaccinating adult cattle for the target diseases, harvesting their blood, and removing red and white blood cells to create a serum. They are administered to treat a disease when symptoms are apparent.

Evaluating Complementary and Alternative Treatment Regimens

Most alternative treatments presented to organic dairy producers have not been subjected to extensive testing under controlled circumstances and may only be accompanied by testimonials. What works on one farm may not work on every farm because of differences in climate, management, genetics, and nutrition. It is necessary that you critically evaluate whether a new product’s potential benefits on your farm outweigh the cost of the product. Table 2 provides questions to ask yourself and the company representatives about a new product. If most of your answers are "no," think twice before writing that check!

Table 2. Checklist for evaluation of new treatments. Question __ Does this product fit a need or disease you currently have? __ If you have a disease on your farm, have you evaluated management deficiencies so that you can make changes to prevent the disease? __ Can the company provide you with the published results of independent research (not done or funded by the company) on the product? __ Does the company have safety data on the product and information on milk and meat withholding? __ Will the company share information with or take the time to consult with your veterinarian? __ Does the company have sufficient contact information so that you can contact it for support in the event of a bad reaction to the product? __ Have you contacted other farmers who are familiar with the product? The National List

The USDA National Organic Program (NOP) prohibits most synthetic substances from use in organic livestock production so always check with your certifier when evaluating a product for use with your animals. The basic rule of thumb is that the NOP prohibits all synthetics unless specifically allowed and allows all natural substances unless specifically prohibited. Some "natural" products, however, contain prohibited substances as carriers or additives. Send a product label to your certifier to be sure! It is necessary to review products with your certifier before you need them and definitely before you use them. All products you use on your farm must be listed in your organic systems plan.

NOP Rule §205.603 contains a list of all substances allowed for use in organic livestock production, provided in Table 3. for your convenience. Over time, there may be additions or deletions to the National List so check the most current version at the National Organic Program website (http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/). Your certifier may also provide an allowed products list.

Table 3. National list of allowed synthetics for livestock health (as of 6/2012). Substance Allowed Use Ethanol As disinfectant or sanitizer; NOT as a feed additive. Isopropanol As disinfectant only. Aspirin Allowed to reduce inflammation. Butorphanol Veterinary use only. 8-day milk withdrawal, 42-day meat withdrawal. Vaccines All allowed. Chlorhexidine As a teat dip when other germicidal agents or barrier have lost effectiveness. Allowed for surgical procedures performed by a veterinarian. Chlorine materials: Calcium hypochlorite, Chlorine dioxide,
Sodium hypochlorite Allowed to disinfect and sanitize facilities and equipment. Residual levels in water must meet limit under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Electrolytes Allowed as long as they do not contain antibiotics. Flunixin Allowed with twice the withdrawal period. Furosemide Allowed with twice the withdrawal period. Glucose/Dextrose Allowed. Glycerine Allowed as a teat dip ingredient, but must be produced from hydrolysis of fats and oils. Hydrogen peroxide Allowed. Used as a disinfectant, sanitizer or medical treatment, and on the NOP crops list for plant disease control and as an algicide, disinfectant and sanitizer, including to clean irrigation lines; however, it may not be allowed under milkhouse sanitation requirements. Iodine Allowed as disinfectant and topical treatment. Magnesium hydroxide Veterinary use only. Magnesium sulfate Allowed; used for treatment of grass tetany. Oxytocin Allowed for postcalving emergencies; NOT allowed for milk letdown. Some processors will not allow it because it is a hormone. Fenbendazole Only for use by or on the lawful written order of a licensed veterinarian. Prohibited in slaughter stock, allowed in emergency treatment for dairy and breeder stock when organic system plan-approved preventive management does not prevent infestation. Milk or milk products from a treated animal cannot be labeled as provided for in subpart D of this part for 90 days following treatment. In breeder stock, treatment cannot occur during the last third of gestation if the progeny will be sold as organic and must not be used during the lactation period for breeding stock. Ivermectin Prohibited in slaughter stock, allowed in emergency treatment for dairy and breeder stock when organic system plan-approved preventive management does not prevent infestation. Milk or milk products from a treated animal cannot be labeled as provided for in subpart D of this part for 90 days following treatment. In breeder stock, treatment cannot occur during the last third of gestation if the progeny will be sold as organic and must not be used during the lactation period for breeding stock. Moxidectin For control of internal parasites only. Prohibited in slaughter stock, allowed in emergency treatment for dairy and breeder stock when organic system plan-approved preventive management does not prevent infestation. Milk or milk products from a treated animal cannot be labeled as provided for in subpart D of this part for 90 days following treatment. In breeder stock, treatment cannot occur during the last third of gestation if the progeny will be sold as organic and must not be used during the lactation period for breeding stock. Phosporic acid Allowed as an equipment cleaner as long as it does not contact livestock or land. Poloxalene Allowed for emergency treatment of bloat. Copper sulfate Allowed as topical treatment, hoof treatment. Lidocaine/Procaine Allowed as local anesthetic. Milk withdrawal is 7 days, meat withdrawal is 90 days. Hydrated lime Allowed as external pest control; NOT allowed as a bedding agent. Mineral oil Allowed for topical use and as a lubricant; NOT FOR INTERNAL USE. Tolazoline Used to reverse effects of xylazine; veterinary use only; 8-day meat withdrawal, 4-day milk discard. Trace minerals Allowed as feed additive as long as they are FDA approved. Vitamins Allowed as feed additive as long as they are FDA approved. Xylazine Tranquilizer; veterinary use only; 8-day meat withdrawal, 4-day milk discard. Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations
  • Animal Welfare Information Center Bulletin [Online]. USDA National Agricultural Library. Available at: http://awic.nal.usda.gov/publications/animal-welfare-information-center-bulletin (verified 15 June 2012).
  • de Bairacli Levy, J. 1991. The complete herbal handbook for farm and stable. Faber and Faber, London.
  • Dettloff, P. 2004. Alternative treatments for ruminant animals. Acres U.S.A., Austin, TX
  • Fraser, A. F. 1997. Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare. CABI Publishing, New York, NY.
  • Grandin, T. 2011. Outline of cow welfare critical control points for dairies [Online]. Grandin Livestock Handling Systems, Fort Collins, CO. Available at: http://www.grandin.com/cow.welfare.ccp.html (verified 15 June 2012).
  • Karreman, H. 2006. Treating dairy cows naturally: Thoughts and strategies. Acres U.S.A., Austin, TX.
  • Macleod, G. 2004. A veterinary materia medica and clinical repertory: With materia medica of the nosodes. Random House: UK.
  • New York State Cattle Health Assurance Program Welfare/Cattle Care Module [Online]. New York State Cattle Health Assurance Program. Available at: http://www.nyschap.vet.cornell.edu/module/welfare/welfare.asp (Verified 15 June 2012).
  • Sheaffer, C.Er. 2003. Homeopathy for the herd: A farmers guide to low-cost, non-toxic veterinary care for cattle. Acres U.S.A., Austin, TX.
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2009. Grade "A" pasteurized milk ordinance. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration. (Available online at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodSafety/Product-Specifi
Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: General Concepts

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 12:05pm

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Introduction: Concepts of Organic Dairy Health

Organic dairy herd health is based on a holistic philosophy where soil, the environment, nutrition, and animal health are integrated. In conventional farming, a ‘reductionist’ approach to health is taken. When disease occurs in an organ or system, that diseased area is the target for examination and treatment and often, the rest of the body is irrelevant or ignored. Organic farmers and veterinarians use a different approach and look at the animal as an integrated unit that is a part of the whole ecosystem in which it lives. When disease becomes a problem on organic farms, the farmer cannot just look at the symptoms of the sick animal, but must consider the symptoms of the farm as well. What is lacking in soil health, nutrition, housing, and management that is predisposing the cows to disease?

The prevention of disease through best management practices is essential. Organic farmers do not merely substitute alternative medicine or treatment for one they may have used conventionally. Preventive practices, such as excellent nutrition, vaccination as necessary, stress reduction, and attention to sanitation greatly enhance the health of the herd and reduce disease. When disease does occur, early diagnosis and intervention is essential. To be most effective, alternative treatments need to be introduced earlier and more intensively than conventional treatments. The advantages to animal health under organic management include higher forage diets from predominantly good quality pasture, more exercise and fitness from actively grazing, reduced stress from lower production, crossbreeding for hybrid vigor, and the ability to exhibit natural behaviors. Farmers new to organic may have concerns about not being able to reach for a bottle of penicillin or prostaglandins each time a problem occurs, but in a well-tuned organic system, the instances when these products are needed are often reduced.

Risk Assessments and Best Management Practices

Risk is the possibility of an event happening (like disease) that will have a major affect on the health and financial profitability of the farm. A risk analysis helps identify potential problems and determine how to manage them most effectively. Your veterinarian can help with this process. Many states have cattle health assurance programs that assist the development of farm plans and sometimes provide financial support for testing. One of the most comprehensive sites is provided by the New York Cattle Health Assurance Program (www.nyschap.vet.cornell.edu).

Risk analysis consists of three basic steps:

  1. Identify the problems, contributing factors, and extent of the problem.
  2. Design the best management practices to reduce and prevent disease on the farm.
  3. Communicate the issues and management strategies to all members of the farm team (workers, consultants, veterinarians, etc.) so that control is a community effort.

Using best management practices on your farm will help increase your herd’s health and will reduce disease, so it is worthwhile to take the time to include these in the herd health section of your Organic Systems Plan. Best Management Practices (BMP) are methods that reduce the risk of disease in the herd and may be as simple as keeping stalls clean and comfortable or may be more complex, such as designing and testing a segregation program to manage Johne’s on the farm.

Key steps in instituting BMPs are:

  • identifying risks for diseases,
  • designing management changes to reduce risk,
  • implementing those changes,
  • monitoring the effects of those changes on animal health, and
  • re-evaluating regularly and adjusting management as needed.
Animal Welfare on Organic Farms

Most consumers of organic dairy products purchase them with the idea that the cows producing the products are housed comfortably, are allowed to express natural behaviors, are outside on pasture, and that stress, illness, and suffering are reduced.

The National Organic Program (NOP) rule specifically states that “organic livestock producers must establish and maintain livestock living conditions which accommodate the health and natural behaviors of animals” and that “no producer shall withhold medical treatments from animals in an effort to preserve its organic status.” If properly administered alternative treatments are ineffective, farmers must use prohibited conventional substances as a last resort if it might save the animal. That animal must be identified and its food products (meat and milk) must be eliminated from the organic food chain forever.

“With herd health, the hardest thing to learn is the point at which you are not going to be able to pull an animal through with alternative remedies and knowing the point when you need to resort to antibiotics. The problem in some conditions is if you wait until they look like they are going to die, [the cows] probably still will die anyway. [The NOP] requires that you do not let animals suffer, although a treated animal must then be removed from the herd. The longer you are in organic management, the healthier your cows are.” —Liz Bawden, organic farmer in Northern New York

Animal Health Recordkeeping

The backbone of every organic farm is good recordkeeping so you can verify your organic management practices. Animal health records will be required by your organic certifier, and they are strongly recommended as a good business practice. Good records help you make well-informed decisions about preventative healthcare, develop appropriate culling strategies, and help fine tune your reproductive program.

Keeping detailed information on estrous (heat) cycles, feeding, and production is also recommended and makes good business sense. The health record form (appendix A) at the end of this chapter provides an example of an individual animal health record. Your certifier or milk processor may have other recordkeeping templates or suggestions. Finally, the most important piece of recordkeeping is actually using the information you collect to make sound financial and management decisions by being able to cull a repeat breeder or a cow with chronic mastitis.

Minimum data to track in your health recordkeeping include:

  • Animal identification
  • Birthdate or date of purchase
  • Sire and dam
  • Lactation number
  • Calving dates
  • Milk production and components
  • Dates and outcome of testing (Johne’s, BVD, etc.)
  • Treatments (product, date administered and dose, site administered and by whom, withholding time, and outcome)
  • Date of culling, sale, or death
Value of a Valid Veterinary-Client-Patient Relationship (VCPR)

Even though most conventional pharmaceuticals are not allowed in organic management, veterinarians can still play an important role on the organic farm in preventing, diagnosing, and managing disease. As the number of organic farms increase, we will likely see an increase in the number of veterinarians skilled in the use of alternative treatments, or at least familiar with managing diseases on organic farms.

A VCPR exists when the veterinarian has sufficient knowledge of the animal and the farm management through examination and farm visits. The veterinarian can work with you to develop a preliminary organic treatment plan and should be available for follow-up in case of adverse reactions or worsening of disease conditions.

Most alternative treatments are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and are therefore considered “extra label drug use” (ELDU) under the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO). Alternative treatments (e.g., aloe vera, homeopathic drugs, and botanical tinctures) must comply with the drug labeling and storage requirements of Section 15r of the PMO. All treatments must be labeled with the proper ELDU documentation. Without proper labeling and storage, you may face debits on farm inspections and risk losing your permit for shipping milk.

Alternative and allowed conventional treatments must be labeled with the following.

  • The name and address of the authorizing veterinarian (one who is personally familiar with the farm).
  • The name of the active ingredients (this is met by displaying the drug’s common, generic, or scientific name, not the trade or brand name).
  • Adequate directions for use.
  • Withholding times for meat and milk, even if zero.
  • Any necessary cautionary statements.
Performing a Physical Exam

Performing physical examinations on your animals will help you identify illnesses earlier, communicate with your veterinarian, and monitor response to treatments. It is worthwhile to develop a consistent routine for your physical examinations and to record your findings as you go. The information in Appendix B was developed by Cornell University’s PRO-DAIRY and is a useful guide to physical exams for all farms.

Summary of Key Organic Transition Points for Organic Livestock Health Care
  • Follow the NOP rules regarding animal management and treatments (§205.236–§205.239, §205.290, and §205.603–§205.604). Always check with your certifier before using a new treatment or substance! Many animal health treatments commonly used on conventional farms are NOT permitted in organic management (e.g., antibiotics, hormones, propylene glycol, calcium proprionate gel tubes, many udder salves, etc.).
  • Dairy health on organic farms is more than knowing the allowed and prohibited substances. Your focus needs to be on preventive practices, management, and sanitation.
  • Observe! Watch your animals carefully and often and understand their behavior. Most illnesses evolve over time so careful observation will allow you to detect symptoms early and act before you hit a crisis.
  • Know how to perform a basic physical exam and record your findings.
  • She is what she eats. Good nutrition is essential to good animal health and a properly functioning immune system.
  • Cleanliness! Disease is related to the number of bacteria, viruses, etc. presented to the animal. Keep stalls and yards free of manure, eliminate access to damp muddy areas, and be careful about contaminating youngstock areas with adult manure.
  • Pasture is your partner. The nutrition provided by "Dr. Green" will help prevent many health problems and is your ally in treatment. Natural ventilation, breezes, and UV radiation from the sun will act as natural antimicrobial agents.
  • Reduce stress! Prevent overcrowding, provide superior nutrition, and practice good animal husbandry. During the winter housing season, ensure superior ventilation to prevent respiratory diseases. Always provide a fresh supply of good quality water. Would you drink from your cattle's water troughs?
  • Practice good recordkeeping. This will keep you in good stead with your certifier and allow you to identify problem trends early.
  • Vaccinations are allowed and should be used where indicated.
  • Foster a good relationship with a local veterinarian. Many established organic farmers find that the number of veterinary treatment visits decrease in a successful organic system. However, your veterinarian can be a good consultant and will help you establish your best management practices to prevent disease and will be available to you for critical situations.
  • Familiarize yourself with complementary and alternative therapies through reading, attending meetings, and speaking with established organic farmers. Know what works well in your hands and on your farm (keep records of treatments and responses).
  • When alternative treatments fail and animal welfare is in jeopardy, you are obliged by the NOP rule to provide necessary medical treatment, even if it uses prohibited substances and you must remove the animal from your herd.
Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations

 

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 7948

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Virus Helps Scientists Identify "Who's Who" Among Two Veggie Enemies

Agricultural Research Service | USDA - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 9:30am
Read the magazine story to find out more.


ARS plant pathologist Carolee Bull is sorting out "who's who" between two easily confused bacteria that attack and ruin some of the same crops, such as broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower. Click the image for more information about it.


Virus Helps Scientists Identify "Who's Who" Among Two Veggie Enemies By Marcia Wood
February 8, 2013

Natural warfare between a virus and a Pseudomonas bacterium is helping U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) scientists continue to learn about the bacterium's ability to kill arugula, broccoli, and several other cruciferous vegetables.

USDA plant pathologist Carolee T. Bull and her colleagues use the virus, known as PBSPCA1, as the basis for a lab test that helps quickly identify Pseudomonas cannabina pv. (pathovar) alisalensis. Bull works in the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Crop Improvement and Protection Research Unit in Salinas, Calif. ARS is USDA's chief intramural scientific research agency.

In ongoing research that dates back to 1998, Bull and her co-investigators have detected and identified this pseudomonad; clarified its taxonomy, or "family tree"; and determined that it is the culprit behind a costly disease called bacterial blight of crucifers. The blight causes water-soaked spots to appear on plant leaves. Eventually, the spots coalesce and turn brown, giving the leaves an unattractive, burnt appearance that makes the vegetable unmarketable.

Early on, the scientists' field, greenhouse, and laboratory studies indicated that the crucifer blight bacterium could be easily confused with a close cousin, P. syringae pv. maculicola, which causes pepper spot disease. The two different pseudomonads kill some of the same vegetable crops, and several standard lab tests can't reliably tell which bacterium is which.

Bull and her colleagues chose the PBSPCA1 virus as the basis for a lab assay that reliably sorts out "who's who" among the two confusing bacteria. Because it can kill the crucifer blight bacterium, but not the pepper spot pseudomonad, the virus can be used to differentiate one from the other.

Bull and her coworkers begin using PBSPCA1 for preliminary diagnoses in 2002, and have continued to improve the assay.

The virus and both of the bacteria are harmless to humans.

The bacterium that the team was to later identify as the cause of crucifer blight began showing up in vegetable fields in California's Salinas Valley in 1995. Bull began investigating the mysterious microbe three years later. Within a few years, her team had resolved much of the confusion surrounding it.

Today, Bull and her co-investigators continue to help growers and plant pathologists in the United States and abroad identify the crucifer blight bacterium. Positive identification matters, especially when growers are deciding what to plant. For example, the Salinas studies have shown that broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower are vulnerable to both the crucifer blight and the pepper spot bacteria, while some other crops, such as lettuce, are not.

Read more about this research in the February 2013 issue of Agricultural Research magazine.

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Use of Compost for Horse Bedding

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 8:49am

Tens of thousands of horses in Snohomish County means a very large volume of manure, and the piles of stall waste generated from some of the larger equine facilities are phenomenal in both size and potential environmental risk. With high annual rainfall and an abundance of perennial streams, wetlands and lakes in western Washington, the potential for adverse impact to aquatic wildlife and water resources is significant. The project was developed as a way to encourage horse owners and managers to improve manure management, reduce off-farm inputs and operating expenses and develop sustainable land management practices.

This video describes the project and how to use compost as horse bedding.

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Organic Dairy Herd Health: Hoof Health and Lameness

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Fri, 02/08/2013 - 3:32am

eOrganic author:

Linda Tikofsky

Source:

Adapted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 18 July 2012).

Introduction

Hoof health and lameness--big concerns for dairy producers--are directly related to management. The contributing factors are nutrition, walking surfaces, cow comfort (stalls), genetics, cleanliness, and biosecurity, most of which are under a farmer's direct control. On conventional farms, lameness has increased markedly over the last 20 years as intensive dairying has increased. Because organic cows are managed less intensively and production is lower, many studies have found a reduction in lameness as farms switch to grazing and organic production methods.

Nutrition

High starch diets and diets containing improperly processed grain can set cows up for acidosis and hoof disease. Fortunately, most organic diets limit grain intake and rely heavily on forage, so acidosis is reduced. Problems can occur, however, if slug feeding is practiced (offering grain for a short amount of time, e.g., in parlor). See "Managing Dairy Nutrition for the Organic Herd: Assessing the Feeding Program" for additional information on acidosis and nutritional impact on lameness. Trace minerals (copper, zinc) and vitamins (A and E, biotin, and beta carotene) are necessary for healthy hoof growth and proper function of the immune system.

Housing

Confinement on concrete will increase feet and leg problems, as will uncomfortable stalls if cows are reluctant to lie down. Since organic cows spend most of their time on pasture during the grazing season, lameness problems decrease for most dairies. Cleanliness of housing can have an impact on lameness on any dairy. Moisture from wet manure, urine, mud, and standing water in pastures harbors bacteria that cause infectious foot rot and soften the hoof, making invasion by these bacteria more likely to occur.

Causes of Lameness

As with many diseases, lameness is caused by many factors. Table 1. reviews the common causes of lameness (both infectious and noninfectious).

Table 1. Common causes of lameness and management considerations. Name and Cause Location and Characteristics Contributing Factors Management and Treatment Infectious Hoof Diseases

Digital Dermatitis (strawberry wart, hairy heel wart)

Cause: bacterial

  • Heel between claws (raised red area with hairs at heel or between toes; cow may walk on tip of toe).
  • Raised patches on heel that may bleed.
  • Concrete flooring.
  • Wet feet, mud.
  • Very contagious.
  • Keep feet clean and dry.
  • Foot baths (copper sulfate or lime).
  • Iodine or copper sulfate sprays.
  • Reduce pasture mud.
  • Hoof trimming.
  • Surgical removal.
Must treat with antibiotics if the animal is suffering.

Interdigital Necrobacillosis (foot rot, foot foul)

Cause: bacterial

  • Occurs suddenly.
  • Very bad odor to foot.
  • Swelling above the hoof (may extend to hock).
  • Abscesses and sores.
  • Fever, loss of appetite.
  • Mud and manure.
  • Rocks and stones.
  • Injuries from ice.
  • Walking on field stubble.
  • Clean and trim.
  • Drain abscesses.
  • Pack and bandage with iodine/sugar paste or copper sulfate.
  • Copper sulfate/lime foot baths (wet: 5% copper sulfate), (dry: 1 part copper sulfate: 9 parts lime).
  • Amputation of toe if severely infected.
Must treat with antibiotics if the animal is suffering.

Interdigital Dermatitis

Cause: bacterial
  • Mild swelling of heel.
  • +/– lameness.
  • Sores between toes.
  • Stress.
  • Vitamin A deficiency.
  • Zinc deficiency.
  • Copper deficiency.
  • Protein deficiency.
  • Foot trimming.
  • Topical copper sulfate.
  • Zinc and other trace minerals in feed.
Noninfectious Hoof Diseases

Laminitis (founder)

Cause: acidosis

  • Bruises (hemorrhage in sole and walls).
  • Abscesses.
  • Cow walks very stiffly on legs.
  • "Slipper feet."
  • Acidosis from high grain diet.
  • Uterine infection.
  • Severe mastitis.
  • Foot trimming.
  • Diet changes.

Sole Ulcers

Cause: laminitis or poor trimming

  • Sores on sole.
  • Bulge of reddish tissue.
  • Laminitis.
  • Wetness and manure.
  • Poor hoof trimming.
  • Foot trimming.
  • Pack ulcer with topical allowed antiseptic.
  • Apply block to opposite toe to relieve pressure.

Bruises

Cause: trauma

  • Bluish patches on sole.
  • Trimming hooves too short.
  • Rocky pastures.
  • Poorly constructed lanes.
  • Confine to well-bedded area.
  • Block opposite toe.

White Line Disease

Cause: laminitis, moisture

  • Swelling and hemorrhage in area of heel bulb.
  • Laminitis.
  • Moisture.
  • Trauma.
  • Foot trimming.
  • Establish drainage.
  • Assess diet.
Must treat with antibiotics to remove toe if there is a deep infection and the animal is suffering. Alternative Therapies for Lameness

The following therapies may not be scientifically evaluated or appropriate for all farms. Make sure you consult the References and Citations section at the end of this article for specific instructions.

  • Foot rot: homeopathic pyrogen.
  • Abscesses: homeopathic hepar sulph, silica.
  • Garlic tincture or crushed bulbs orally.
  • Epsom salt/tea tree oil footwraps.
Also in This Series

This article is part of a series discussing organic dairy herd health. For more information, see the following articles.

References and Citations

 

This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.

eOrganic 8002

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

eOrganic Dairy: Appendices from The Organic Dairy Handbook

Alternative Farming Systems Information Center - Thu, 02/07/2013 - 10:27am

Appendices posted with permission from: Mendenhall, K. (ed.) 2009. The organic dairy handbook: a comprehensive guide for the transition and beyond. Northeast Organic Farming Asociation of New York, Inc., Cobleskill, NY. (Available online at: http://www.nofany.org/organic-farming/technical-assistance/organic-dairy, verified 2 February 2013).

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce

Understanding Microbes Blowing in the Wind

Agricultural Research Service | USDA - Wed, 02/06/2013 - 8:31am
Read the magazine story to find out more.


ARS research is shedding new light on hitchhiking by microbes in soils carried off by strong winds, which could lead to better ways to minimize soil damage from wind erosion. Click the image for more information about it.


Understanding Microbes Blowing in the Wind By Dennis O'Brien
February 6, 2013

With help from a wind tunnel and the latest DNA technology, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) scientists are shedding light on the travel patterns of microbes in soils carried off by strong winds. The work has implications for soil health and could lead to management practices that minimize the damage to soils caused by wind erosion.

Wind erosion is an emerging issue in soil conservation efforts. Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists have been studying wind-eroded soils since the 1930s, but few studies have focused on the effects of wind on the bacteria, fungi, and protozoa in the soil. ARS is USDA's chief intramural scientific research agency.

Researchers see an increasing need to focus on pathogens and agriculturally important bacteria carried in dust. ARS soil scientist Veronica Acosta-Martinez, with the agency's Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Unit in Lubbock, Texas, focused on bacterial populations that could be classified by DNA sequencing. She worked with Terrence Gardner, a visiting scientist from Alabama A&M University.

Researchers collected airborne dust and samples of a type of organic soil susceptible to wind erosion from fields where potatoes, beets and onions had grown a few years earlier and exposed them to windy conditions using a portable wind tunnel. They characterized the bacteria they found in both the "source soils" and the wind-eroded sediments, focusing on types of bacteria associated with coarse particles and on the types associated with fine dust particles.

They classified the bacteria found in each type of soil and wind-eroded sediment using pyrosequencing, a process that allowed them to identify up to 100 times more DNA in each sample than they would have detected with traditional methods. The study results, published online in the Journal of Environmental Quality, showed that certain types of bacteria, known as Bacteroidetes, were more predominant in the fine dust. Other types, known as Proteobacteria, were more predominant in coarse sediments.

Studies have shown that Bacteroidetes resist desiccation and thus can survive in extreme conditions when carried long distances. The fact that Proteobacteria were associated with coarse eroded sediments, which travel shorter distances, may explain how soils can retain important qualities despite damaging winds. Proteobacteria play an important role in carbon and nitrogen cycling, and their fate in dust storms will be the focus of future research, according to Acosta-Martinez.

Read more about this research in the February 2013 issue of Agricultural Research magazine.

Categories: Agriculture / Commerce
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